It may seem strange to talk about Japanese dissidents before World War Two, since most of us were led to believe that everyone in Japan just blindly followed whatever the Emperor or the government dictated. But, there were quite a few people who opposed the government policies and its aggression abroad, dating back to the days of Emperor Meiji! Despite the Japanese cultural tendencies to fall in line, to obey the authority, there were quite a few independent thinkers who objected to Japan's militarism and aggression against other nations.
Japan's first major adventure abroad in the 20th Century was the short Russo-Japanese War of 1905. Although many Japanese were literally ecstatic with Japan's victory, many others were not! When a victory parade was held in Tokyo and General Nogi, who led the Japanese in that war, rode his white stallion down the street, there were people in the crowd who pelted him with rotten vegetables and shouted curses at him. Japan, despite its victory, had lost a lot men, and many in Japan felt it was not worth it. Women lined the streets and shouted at Nogi, "Where is my son? What have you done with my son? Murderer! Bring him back!" Of course the press did not elaborate on the demonstrations, those reporters who did, ended up in jail! So, despite what we were told by our own propaganda machine, all Japanese were not wild-eyed war mongers eagerly going to their death at the Emperor's or their commanding officer's orders!
It may seem still stranger to identify one of the prominent dissidents to Japan's policies as the famous architect of the Pearl Harbor attack, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. Yamamoto, born Isoroku Takano, lost both of his parents at an early age and was adopted by the Yamamoto family. Early on he showed a brilliant mind for military strategy and entered the Imperial Naval Academy at age 16. Upon graduation he was assigned to a Japanese warship that engaged the Russian fleet during the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. He saw combat early on, in fact was wounded and lost two fingers in the naval battle at Tsushima Straits. His career advanced rapidly and as a young Commander he was sent to Harvard for two years to study. He returned and was promoted to Captain and assigned for two years as Japan's Naval Attache in Washington DC. So, he was not only fluent in English but had a very good understanding of America. His anti-government policy sentiments surfaced during this time and many in the government began to think about getting rid of him.
In 1937, at the height of Japan's belligerent and aggressive attitude in Asian, the Japanese sank the American gun boat USS Panay. While the Japanese government refused to admit responsibility for the act, Yamamoto, on his own, made a public apology to America by denouncing his own country's act!
He was lucky that the Minister of Navy was a good friend and liked him. The Minister saved Yamamoto by quickly assigning him to sea duty to an aircraft carrier. The Minister later admitted that he was saving Yamamoto's life, not just his career! Yamamoto dodged a bullet that time. By the time Japan decided to attack the United States, Pearl Harbor specifically, the only officer they had who had familiarity with America was Yamamoto. Of course there were others who studied in America and spoke English, but no one had the combination of military knowledge and intimate knowledge of American way of thinking. So, he was picked to draw up plans for the attack.
Yamamoto was reluctant at first, but then agreed to plan the attack. By then he had also become one of the highest ranking Naval Officers in Japan. After drawing up the plans, Yamamoto told the Minister of Navy and the Prime Minister that the only chance Japan had was if the war was concluded within six months. He said that if the attack on Pearl Harbor destroyed America's Pacific Fleet perhaps America would agree to peace, then perhaps there was a chance of coming out of this adventure ahead. Otherwise, he said, it would be a catastrophe for Japan. This remark almost cost him his career and life again! When the war did not conclude after six months, Yamamoto, it is said, told his close friends in private that the only chance now was to sue for peace or surrender on favorable terms! Of course Yamamoto was killed, shot down by a squadron of P-38s, so at least he never saw Japan's humiliating defeat and unconditional surrender.
Oddly enough, Yamamoto was anti-war and anti-Japanese policies, despite his high rank and fame. He was truly an independent thinker, a great mind. Too bad his life had to end the way it did. But then, perhaps it was better than a humiliating surrender and more than likely hanging as a war criminal!
Saturday, August 30, 2014
Sunday, August 24, 2014
The Man with Five Lives!
Yang Kyong Jong was either the luckiest, or the unluckiest man during his lifetime! Born in 1920 in northwestern part of Korea, his family moved to Manchuria when he was still an infant. Life was hard in Manchuria and his family struggled to survive. The Japanese rule in Manchuria was not quite as stifling as it was in Korea, but nevertheless, it was very tough. Yang was not a Russian-Korean, the uhl mao zeh, who tended to be better educated and better off financially. He was of very humble background, poorly educated, so he did whatever he could to improve his situation.
Prior to World War Two, Japan had its own version of Hitler Youth which was called Dai Nippon Seinen-To. This fascist youth organization spawned several others, of which Yokusan Sonendan became the best known. Sonendan, as it was popularly called, recruited teens in Korea and Manchuria, non-Japanese, grooming them to become loyal Japanese subjects with para-military drills, etc. For someone like Yang, poor and with no education, Sonendan seemed like a good solution, so he joined it when he was fourteen. Little did he realize where this was going to lead him in life.
In 1938, when he turned 18, he was inducted into the Japanese Imperial Army, the Kwantung Army in Manchuria. After some precursory basic training, he was assigned to a work battalion that supported a tank unit. Although non-Japanese were inducted into service, the Japanese did not trust them and did not allow them to serve bearing arms. Only those that distinguished themselves or attended the military academies (Army or Navy) were allowed to serve in combat arms. But they could never rise to General Officer rank, no matter how good they were! So, Yang was essentially inducted to serve on the labor force for the Kwantung Army.
A year later, in 1939, the Kwantung Army unilaterally (without Tokyo's approval, or so they say!) struck across the Manchurian border into Mongolia and Siberia. Yang was among the invasion force. Unfortunately for the Japanese, they vastly underestimated the Soviet strength and capabilities and overestimated their own! The Red Army under the command of General Giorgi Zhukov not only repelled the Japanese invasion, they practically destroyed all of the attacking force, capturing thousands of prisoners, mostly Korean "volunteers." This was the undeclared non-war, the Nomanhan Incident. Yang was captured and among those unfortunate Japanese POWs who were sent off to Gulags in Siberia. Most of them perished in those horrible concentration camps.
In 1942 the Soviet Union was desperate for manpower as it battled the Nazis almost single handedly. They offered their non-Japanese prisoners, those who had survived so far, a chance to leave the Gulags and serve the Red Army. Yang was among those survivors who grabbed the opportunity to leave the concentration camp. Because of his prior experience with the Japanese army serving in a tank support battalion, he was once again assigned to a tank support unit, this time in the Red Army! However, in 1942 the war was going very badly for the Soviet Union, and in one of the big tank battles in the Ukraine, Yang was captured by the Germans. So off he went to the German POW camp which was really no better than the Soviet Gulags, only not as cold!
After surviving the terrible conditions in the German POW camp for two years, in early 1944 he was given an opportunity to don the German uniform. Germany was desperate for manpower and they recruited out of POW camps anyone willing to put on the German uniform. Yang once again found himself in a foreign uniform, this time assigned to a unit which was to help fortify the so-called "Atlantic Wall" in defense against Allied Invasion. He was sent to Normandy with a work battalion made up of non-Germans, former POWs. Well, his career in the Wermacht didn't last long. He was captured by paratroopers from the 82nd Airborne Division during the D-Day Invasion! The Americans didn't know what to do with him. At first they thought he was Japanese, an ally of Germany, but then they managed to learn that he was Korean, but there was no one who could speak Korean. Yang could speak a smattering of Russian and German, and Japanese, of course, but no English! He was sent to a POW camp in England to ride out the rest of the war.
In 1945, at the conclusion of the war, one of his American interrogators took a liking to him and arranged to have him resettled in America. Yang came to Illinois, just outside of Chicago, and lived the rest of his life there, quietly. He never even told his own children about his background, about his fantastic World War Two experience! He died in 1992. His somewhat early (he was 72 years old) death was partly brought about by health problems that he had from those horrible years in Soviet and Nazi prisons.
Shortly afterwards, a well known South Korean movie director got a hold of Yang's incredible story and decided to make a movie out of it. Naturally, as movie directors are prone to do, he took artistic license and glamourized the whole story making Yang into some sort of an international John Wayne! The movie's story line is so far removed from truth that it is laughable. It is too bad, since the real story, although not glamorous, is worth telling on its own. After all, how many men can lay claim to have served in three different armies in two different wars in a five year span!
Yang may not have had 9 lives like a cat, but he certainly did have at least five lives: At first as a Korean up into his teens, then as a Japanese soldier. He then became a Russian soldier, only to become a German soldier two years later. Then he finally moved to America and lived and died as an American citizen!
Prior to World War Two, Japan had its own version of Hitler Youth which was called Dai Nippon Seinen-To. This fascist youth organization spawned several others, of which Yokusan Sonendan became the best known. Sonendan, as it was popularly called, recruited teens in Korea and Manchuria, non-Japanese, grooming them to become loyal Japanese subjects with para-military drills, etc. For someone like Yang, poor and with no education, Sonendan seemed like a good solution, so he joined it when he was fourteen. Little did he realize where this was going to lead him in life.
In 1938, when he turned 18, he was inducted into the Japanese Imperial Army, the Kwantung Army in Manchuria. After some precursory basic training, he was assigned to a work battalion that supported a tank unit. Although non-Japanese were inducted into service, the Japanese did not trust them and did not allow them to serve bearing arms. Only those that distinguished themselves or attended the military academies (Army or Navy) were allowed to serve in combat arms. But they could never rise to General Officer rank, no matter how good they were! So, Yang was essentially inducted to serve on the labor force for the Kwantung Army.
A year later, in 1939, the Kwantung Army unilaterally (without Tokyo's approval, or so they say!) struck across the Manchurian border into Mongolia and Siberia. Yang was among the invasion force. Unfortunately for the Japanese, they vastly underestimated the Soviet strength and capabilities and overestimated their own! The Red Army under the command of General Giorgi Zhukov not only repelled the Japanese invasion, they practically destroyed all of the attacking force, capturing thousands of prisoners, mostly Korean "volunteers." This was the undeclared non-war, the Nomanhan Incident. Yang was captured and among those unfortunate Japanese POWs who were sent off to Gulags in Siberia. Most of them perished in those horrible concentration camps.
In 1942 the Soviet Union was desperate for manpower as it battled the Nazis almost single handedly. They offered their non-Japanese prisoners, those who had survived so far, a chance to leave the Gulags and serve the Red Army. Yang was among those survivors who grabbed the opportunity to leave the concentration camp. Because of his prior experience with the Japanese army serving in a tank support battalion, he was once again assigned to a tank support unit, this time in the Red Army! However, in 1942 the war was going very badly for the Soviet Union, and in one of the big tank battles in the Ukraine, Yang was captured by the Germans. So off he went to the German POW camp which was really no better than the Soviet Gulags, only not as cold!
After surviving the terrible conditions in the German POW camp for two years, in early 1944 he was given an opportunity to don the German uniform. Germany was desperate for manpower and they recruited out of POW camps anyone willing to put on the German uniform. Yang once again found himself in a foreign uniform, this time assigned to a unit which was to help fortify the so-called "Atlantic Wall" in defense against Allied Invasion. He was sent to Normandy with a work battalion made up of non-Germans, former POWs. Well, his career in the Wermacht didn't last long. He was captured by paratroopers from the 82nd Airborne Division during the D-Day Invasion! The Americans didn't know what to do with him. At first they thought he was Japanese, an ally of Germany, but then they managed to learn that he was Korean, but there was no one who could speak Korean. Yang could speak a smattering of Russian and German, and Japanese, of course, but no English! He was sent to a POW camp in England to ride out the rest of the war.
In 1945, at the conclusion of the war, one of his American interrogators took a liking to him and arranged to have him resettled in America. Yang came to Illinois, just outside of Chicago, and lived the rest of his life there, quietly. He never even told his own children about his background, about his fantastic World War Two experience! He died in 1992. His somewhat early (he was 72 years old) death was partly brought about by health problems that he had from those horrible years in Soviet and Nazi prisons.
Shortly afterwards, a well known South Korean movie director got a hold of Yang's incredible story and decided to make a movie out of it. Naturally, as movie directors are prone to do, he took artistic license and glamourized the whole story making Yang into some sort of an international John Wayne! The movie's story line is so far removed from truth that it is laughable. It is too bad, since the real story, although not glamorous, is worth telling on its own. After all, how many men can lay claim to have served in three different armies in two different wars in a five year span!
Yang may not have had 9 lives like a cat, but he certainly did have at least five lives: At first as a Korean up into his teens, then as a Japanese soldier. He then became a Russian soldier, only to become a German soldier two years later. Then he finally moved to America and lived and died as an American citizen!
Thursday, August 21, 2014
The Little Known War
Japan's rise in Asia began with Imjin Wars and culminated in the disastrous defeat in World War Two. In between, Japan experienced some "highs," like their victory in the first Sino-Japanese war of 1898 (which essentially gave them the right to grab Korea) and was quickly followed by the Russo-Japanese War. By that time Japan had a solid grip on Korea and officially annexed it. Japan then eyed other territories, Manchuria first (where they already had a foothold after Russo-Japanese War), Sakhalin Island was annexed after Japan's participation of allied campaign against the Bolsheviks in Siberia 1919. Manchuria became officially Japanese in 1931 as the puppet state of "Manchukuo" and in 1937 Japan launched the second Sino-Japanese War against a very weak and disunited Nationalist China.
As if all that aggression wasn't enough, the great Kwantung Army which at its peak numbered well over a million men, greedily eyed some territory north of Manchuria, territory that used to be part of Manchuria and was called outer Manchuria before Russia grabbed it from the weak Ching Dynasty China. So, without even receiving approval from Tokyo (Kwantung Army was almost an independent entity by this time, after all the success it had experienced!) the Kwantung Army began preparations for another war! The Kwantung Army was not engaged in the Sino-Japanese War, so they were free to do what they wanted. They first increased the strength of the army by enlisting additional men, mostly ethnic Koreans from Manchuria. They were inducted into the Kwantung Army for the purpose of being used as ammo bearers and other non-combat duties, but in the combat zone. When they felt that they were prepared, they launched an invasion of Soviet territory along Manchurian/Mongolian border at a place called Nomanhan in 1939, before Hitler had signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin. Hitler had already invaded several countries in eastern Europe and Japan felt that it too could expand its territory.
Well, it turned out that the Kwantung Army had bitten off more than it could chew. Instead of rolling into the Soviet territory as they imagined that they would, they ran across very stiff resistance from Mongolian army first, then from the Soviet army that came to the Mongol's assistance. A little known Soviet general gained minor fame in that undeclared "non-war." General Giorgi Zhukov, who was later to become a Soviet national hero as the savior of the Soviet Union, commanded the Soviet forces at Nomanhan. The Kwantung Army was not just defeated, it was almost completely destroyed, at least those units that participated in that conflict! It was an embarrassing defeat for the Japanese and especially the Kwantung Army. Up until that time, the Japanese had run roughshod over anyone that they faced, sort of like what the German's were experiencing in Europe.
The Soviets not only won that little war, but captured a significant number of Japanese prisoners that they immediately sent off to their Gulags in Siberia. Most of the so-called Japanese prisoners were ethnic Koreans who had no stomach to fight and die for Japan.
The aftermath of this little known war caused two things to take place. Hitler decided that for a time being, he'd better not go to war against Soviet Union, so he immediately signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin. Japan and the Kwantung Army realized that the Soviet Red Army was not the pushover that they thought it was and decided not to go to war against the Russians. In fact, the government in Tokyo made it a point to avoid any kind of conflict with the Soviets for the duration of their Pacific Campaign. Japan's fear of the Soviet Union kept a million man army, the Kwantung Army, tied up in Manchuria and not used in the Pacific against the Americans. From time to time, in desperation, various units from the Kwantung Army were seconded to units in the Pacific, but generally speaking, the Kwantung Army stayed out of the war, until it was forced into it at the very end when the Soviets invaded Manchuria in the closing days of World War Two, and this time, completely destroyed it.
As if all that aggression wasn't enough, the great Kwantung Army which at its peak numbered well over a million men, greedily eyed some territory north of Manchuria, territory that used to be part of Manchuria and was called outer Manchuria before Russia grabbed it from the weak Ching Dynasty China. So, without even receiving approval from Tokyo (Kwantung Army was almost an independent entity by this time, after all the success it had experienced!) the Kwantung Army began preparations for another war! The Kwantung Army was not engaged in the Sino-Japanese War, so they were free to do what they wanted. They first increased the strength of the army by enlisting additional men, mostly ethnic Koreans from Manchuria. They were inducted into the Kwantung Army for the purpose of being used as ammo bearers and other non-combat duties, but in the combat zone. When they felt that they were prepared, they launched an invasion of Soviet territory along Manchurian/Mongolian border at a place called Nomanhan in 1939, before Hitler had signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin. Hitler had already invaded several countries in eastern Europe and Japan felt that it too could expand its territory.
Well, it turned out that the Kwantung Army had bitten off more than it could chew. Instead of rolling into the Soviet territory as they imagined that they would, they ran across very stiff resistance from Mongolian army first, then from the Soviet army that came to the Mongol's assistance. A little known Soviet general gained minor fame in that undeclared "non-war." General Giorgi Zhukov, who was later to become a Soviet national hero as the savior of the Soviet Union, commanded the Soviet forces at Nomanhan. The Kwantung Army was not just defeated, it was almost completely destroyed, at least those units that participated in that conflict! It was an embarrassing defeat for the Japanese and especially the Kwantung Army. Up until that time, the Japanese had run roughshod over anyone that they faced, sort of like what the German's were experiencing in Europe.
The Soviets not only won that little war, but captured a significant number of Japanese prisoners that they immediately sent off to their Gulags in Siberia. Most of the so-called Japanese prisoners were ethnic Koreans who had no stomach to fight and die for Japan.
The aftermath of this little known war caused two things to take place. Hitler decided that for a time being, he'd better not go to war against Soviet Union, so he immediately signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin. Japan and the Kwantung Army realized that the Soviet Red Army was not the pushover that they thought it was and decided not to go to war against the Russians. In fact, the government in Tokyo made it a point to avoid any kind of conflict with the Soviets for the duration of their Pacific Campaign. Japan's fear of the Soviet Union kept a million man army, the Kwantung Army, tied up in Manchuria and not used in the Pacific against the Americans. From time to time, in desperation, various units from the Kwantung Army were seconded to units in the Pacific, but generally speaking, the Kwantung Army stayed out of the war, until it was forced into it at the very end when the Soviets invaded Manchuria in the closing days of World War Two, and this time, completely destroyed it.
Sunday, August 17, 2014
The Rising Sun
The Manchu conquest of China and establishment of the Ching Dynasty seemed to have re-established China as the supreme power in Asia. However, the Ching Dynasty's supremacy was not all that long lasting, at least not by the standards set by the previous Chinese dynasties. The Ching appeared to dominate Asia in the 17th Century after first establishing itself firmly in all of China. Japan seemed to keep more or less to itself, only raiding some southern territories, the Ryukus Islands chain in particular, and the Wako (pirates) continued their activities both on the Chinese coast and Korea.
Korea, still under the Chosun Dynasty became the vassal state of Ching as they were before the tributary of Ming. The Imjin Wars had a devastating effect on Korea. Not only had its population suffered, but the government was weakened considerably. The Chosun Dynasty, which had taken over the former Koryo Dynasty, had been in power since the late 14th Century. The Chosun Dynasty was responsible for many advancements, scientific discoveries and inventions. In the 15th Century, prior to the Imjin Wars, Chosun Dynasty invented the first moveable printing press, several decades ahead of Guttenberg in Europe! Chosun Dynasty was responsible for the introduction of the simplified Korean written system, the hangul. There were also numerous scientific inventions such as the first really accurate rain gauge in the world! All of these advancements went for naught in the next several hundred years! The government, after Imjin Wars, was mostly run by corrupt and ineffective officials, and the population suffered greatly. It wasn't until the very last Chosun Emperor, when things started to turn around.
King Kojong was a very forward thinking individual, and unlike some of his predecessors, genuinely interested in the welfare of his people and his country. He knew that Korea had to drag itself into the modern world, that it could not remain as a "hermit kingdom," something which his predecessors, including his father, King Taewon-gun, insisted on. When Kojong took the throne in 1874. Kojong saw what Japan was doing under Emperor Meiji with rapid modernization, and felt that Korea would be left behind if it didn't do the same thing, perhaps even more. One of the most amazing things that he did was to hire an American, a judge from Oregon who had just completed a stint as the U.S. Consul General in Shanghai, by the name of Owen Denny. Korea had no one at the time who was trained abroad and was familiar with western politics and ways. Kojong hired Denny and appointed him Director of Foreign Affairs and Vice President of Home Office! In short, he wanted to completely revamp how Korea did business with the outside world as well as its internal affairs! Denny became essentially Korea's Foreign Minister or Secretary of State for 4 years, from 1886 to 1890!
Although Kojong's attempt to modernize Korea was certainly a worthy effort and hiring of Denny a very progressive (if not popular) act, it was too little too late. Denny worked hard, but met with a lot of resistance from Korean officials who did not want to change and resented the fact that a foreigner was put in such a high position. Denny left Korea after 4 years, and shortly Kojong died. With the death of Kojong, his widow took over, but the Japanese were busy trying to take over Korea. The Empress was assassinated by Japanese from their mission in Seoul, the assassination was planned and directed by the Japanese Minister to Korea at that time!
With the assassination of the Empress, Japan essentially took over Korea and only needed to formally announce their annexation. However, Japan was not through with its expansion plans. The first Sino-Japanese War was fought between 1894 and 1895, essentially it was for control of Korea. Japan wanted the Ching Dynasty China completely out of Korea. Japan won, and the next step was to oust the Russians from Korea where they held some concessions like stationing their fleet in the port of Inchon. Russia also had control of Manchuria, which interested Japan very much, so the next war was the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. The aftermath of the Russo-Japanese War gave Japan absolute control over Korea, and quite a bit o control over Manchuria. A quarter of a century later, in 1931, Japan formally took over Manchuria.
Korea, still under the Chosun Dynasty became the vassal state of Ching as they were before the tributary of Ming. The Imjin Wars had a devastating effect on Korea. Not only had its population suffered, but the government was weakened considerably. The Chosun Dynasty, which had taken over the former Koryo Dynasty, had been in power since the late 14th Century. The Chosun Dynasty was responsible for many advancements, scientific discoveries and inventions. In the 15th Century, prior to the Imjin Wars, Chosun Dynasty invented the first moveable printing press, several decades ahead of Guttenberg in Europe! Chosun Dynasty was responsible for the introduction of the simplified Korean written system, the hangul. There were also numerous scientific inventions such as the first really accurate rain gauge in the world! All of these advancements went for naught in the next several hundred years! The government, after Imjin Wars, was mostly run by corrupt and ineffective officials, and the population suffered greatly. It wasn't until the very last Chosun Emperor, when things started to turn around.
King Kojong was a very forward thinking individual, and unlike some of his predecessors, genuinely interested in the welfare of his people and his country. He knew that Korea had to drag itself into the modern world, that it could not remain as a "hermit kingdom," something which his predecessors, including his father, King Taewon-gun, insisted on. When Kojong took the throne in 1874. Kojong saw what Japan was doing under Emperor Meiji with rapid modernization, and felt that Korea would be left behind if it didn't do the same thing, perhaps even more. One of the most amazing things that he did was to hire an American, a judge from Oregon who had just completed a stint as the U.S. Consul General in Shanghai, by the name of Owen Denny. Korea had no one at the time who was trained abroad and was familiar with western politics and ways. Kojong hired Denny and appointed him Director of Foreign Affairs and Vice President of Home Office! In short, he wanted to completely revamp how Korea did business with the outside world as well as its internal affairs! Denny became essentially Korea's Foreign Minister or Secretary of State for 4 years, from 1886 to 1890!
Although Kojong's attempt to modernize Korea was certainly a worthy effort and hiring of Denny a very progressive (if not popular) act, it was too little too late. Denny worked hard, but met with a lot of resistance from Korean officials who did not want to change and resented the fact that a foreigner was put in such a high position. Denny left Korea after 4 years, and shortly Kojong died. With the death of Kojong, his widow took over, but the Japanese were busy trying to take over Korea. The Empress was assassinated by Japanese from their mission in Seoul, the assassination was planned and directed by the Japanese Minister to Korea at that time!
With the assassination of the Empress, Japan essentially took over Korea and only needed to formally announce their annexation. However, Japan was not through with its expansion plans. The first Sino-Japanese War was fought between 1894 and 1895, essentially it was for control of Korea. Japan wanted the Ching Dynasty China completely out of Korea. Japan won, and the next step was to oust the Russians from Korea where they held some concessions like stationing their fleet in the port of Inchon. Russia also had control of Manchuria, which interested Japan very much, so the next war was the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. The aftermath of the Russo-Japanese War gave Japan absolute control over Korea, and quite a bit o control over Manchuria. A quarter of a century later, in 1931, Japan formally took over Manchuria.
Thursday, August 14, 2014
The Rise of the Manchus
The Manchus, along with the Japanese pirates (Wako), had been the main source of problems for China and Korea even before the Imjin Wars. Before the Mongol invasion of China and Yuan Dynasty, various tribes from northeastern regions that later became known as Manchuria, were always a thorn on the side of China. During the Korean Koguryo Empire which took up all of the area known as Manchuria today, the northern half of Korean peninsula, and part of what is now Siberia, relations between various Chinese Dynasties and Koguryo were lukewarm at best. Koguryo was never a vassal state of China, in fact, China feared that Koguryo might decide to take over its territory. It is no wonder then that when Silla needed an ally to conquer Koguryo, Tang Dynasty China jumped at the opportunity and helped destroy the empire. However, with the break-up of Koguryo, various tribes became independent and privately conducted periodic raids into China and Korea.
During the Mongol reign (Yuan Dynasty) over China, the various Manchu tribes were more or less quiet, since most of them had joined the Mongol cause earlier and had been part of the Mongol army that had the largest empire known in the world. But with the fall of Yuan and the establishment of Ming Dynasty, the Manchu tribes started to become more belligerent.
It was during the Imjin Wars, when Japanese had pushed all the way to the Manchurian border, that the name Nurhachi became known. The Japanese made the mistake of crossing into Manchuria and raiding one of Nurhachi's castles. Nurhachi, who was a Chieftan of the Jurchens, struck back at the Japanese and drove them back deep into Korea. He then offered to ally with the Koreans to fight the Japanese. But the Korean king very foolishly rebuffed his offer, saying something to the effect that Korea did not need "barbarians" as allies! Nurhachi swore that he would make Korea pay, and this he did after the Imjin Wars ended.
The Koreans asked for Chinese help and the Ming army came to Korea and helped to repel the Japanese. On their way to Korea, they naturally passed through Manchuria and indiscriminately killed and looted any Manchu settlements they came across. Nurhachi protested to the Ming court, but his so-called "seven grievances" were ignored by the Chinese. When the Imjin Wars ended, Nurhachi united all of the Manchu tribes and declared that henceforth they were to be called Manchus, after the place where Jurchens called home in southern Manchuria by the Korean border.
Nurhachi had no trouble subjugating the much weaker Chosun (Korea) which had just emerged from devastating Imjin Wars. He then turned his attention to China. Initially he waged war against China with only a few thousand man army of Manchus, but as years went by, he increased his army considerably by taking a page out of Mongol strategy. He formed an army of "bannermen," Mongols, Koreans, and Chinese who pledged loyalty to him. This increased his army considerably and although he did not see the conquest of China in his lifetime, his descendants accomplished that goal. Mainland China came under Manchu rule by 1650, and by 1683, the Manchus managed to control the remaining territory including Taiwan, which held the last remains of Ming resistance.
Although the Manchu rule lasted until early 20th Century, like all invaders, the Manchus were swallowed up, absorbed by the great Chinese culture and influence. Initially, like the Mongols, the Manchus tried to stay separate, maintain their traditional culture and ways. But, just like their predecessors, within a couple of generations, they were Manchu in name only, they became Chinese.
China, it seems, is like a great sponge, it absorbs all of its invaders and turns them into Chinese!
The Manchus rise to power was fast and spectacular, but their decline and disappearance from prominence was unremarkable, almost unnoticeable. The great Ching Dynasty simply disappeared over night!
During the Mongol reign (Yuan Dynasty) over China, the various Manchu tribes were more or less quiet, since most of them had joined the Mongol cause earlier and had been part of the Mongol army that had the largest empire known in the world. But with the fall of Yuan and the establishment of Ming Dynasty, the Manchu tribes started to become more belligerent.
It was during the Imjin Wars, when Japanese had pushed all the way to the Manchurian border, that the name Nurhachi became known. The Japanese made the mistake of crossing into Manchuria and raiding one of Nurhachi's castles. Nurhachi, who was a Chieftan of the Jurchens, struck back at the Japanese and drove them back deep into Korea. He then offered to ally with the Koreans to fight the Japanese. But the Korean king very foolishly rebuffed his offer, saying something to the effect that Korea did not need "barbarians" as allies! Nurhachi swore that he would make Korea pay, and this he did after the Imjin Wars ended.
The Koreans asked for Chinese help and the Ming army came to Korea and helped to repel the Japanese. On their way to Korea, they naturally passed through Manchuria and indiscriminately killed and looted any Manchu settlements they came across. Nurhachi protested to the Ming court, but his so-called "seven grievances" were ignored by the Chinese. When the Imjin Wars ended, Nurhachi united all of the Manchu tribes and declared that henceforth they were to be called Manchus, after the place where Jurchens called home in southern Manchuria by the Korean border.
Nurhachi had no trouble subjugating the much weaker Chosun (Korea) which had just emerged from devastating Imjin Wars. He then turned his attention to China. Initially he waged war against China with only a few thousand man army of Manchus, but as years went by, he increased his army considerably by taking a page out of Mongol strategy. He formed an army of "bannermen," Mongols, Koreans, and Chinese who pledged loyalty to him. This increased his army considerably and although he did not see the conquest of China in his lifetime, his descendants accomplished that goal. Mainland China came under Manchu rule by 1650, and by 1683, the Manchus managed to control the remaining territory including Taiwan, which held the last remains of Ming resistance.
Although the Manchu rule lasted until early 20th Century, like all invaders, the Manchus were swallowed up, absorbed by the great Chinese culture and influence. Initially, like the Mongols, the Manchus tried to stay separate, maintain their traditional culture and ways. But, just like their predecessors, within a couple of generations, they were Manchu in name only, they became Chinese.
China, it seems, is like a great sponge, it absorbs all of its invaders and turns them into Chinese!
The Manchus rise to power was fast and spectacular, but their decline and disappearance from prominence was unremarkable, almost unnoticeable. The great Ching Dynasty simply disappeared over night!
Sunday, August 10, 2014
"The Tea House of the August Moon"
The Imjin Wars which had a devastating and lasting effect on Korea also affected other countries in the region. The Ming Dynasty of China proved to be not such a powerful country and it soon fell to the Manchus. Korea, with its huge loss in population and devastated cities, took a long time to recover. Japan, on the other hand, although failing to accomplish its goal of conquest of Korea, benefitted from the experience by establishing itself as a power to reckon with in the region. It also acquired many skilled artisans who were brought back from Korea as prisoners and helped establish Japanese pottery, porcelain, lacquer, and other artisan industries.
One of the smaller victims of the Imjin Wars was a tiny chain of islands south of Japan known as the Ryukyus (Loochoo in Chinese), Okinawa as it is known today. Before Toyotomi Hideoshi set off on his campaign to conquer Korea, he requested that the King of Ryukyus provide him with soldiers to help in his endeavor. He had planned to use the Ryukyuan (Okinawan) soldiers as a labor force. (It is interesting to note that Japan was finally able to do so during World War Two, use Okinawans as a labor force). The King of Ryukyus refused to provide troops to Hideoshi. After all, how could he, Ryukyu was a vassal state of Ming China, as was Chosun (Korea). The Japanese, however, did not forget this slight, and later Okinawa was to pay for it dearly.
The years 1609 through 1871 proved to be the darkest years of Ryukyuan (Okinawan) history. About a decade after the end of the Imjin Wars in 1598, the Shimazu Clan of Satsuma in Kyushu landed on Okinawa and proceeded to terrorize the island nation. Shortly, Okinawa ended up paying tribute to two countries, to China and Japan! The Chinese refused to step-in and intervene when the Japanese came to the islands. The Japanese, on the other hand, came to Okinawa when they knew the Chinese would not be there. So the two never met, but came separately, one (China) to trade legitimately, the other (Japan) to exploit the islands. The Shimazu Clan forbid Okinawans to own swords or any weaponry. It is said that the Chinese Shaolin monks introduced Kung Fu to Okinawans so they could defend themselves against the Japanese raiders, thus the Okinawan Shotokan Karate was born - at least that is what the popular legend claims.
Another thing that occurred during this period was supposedly an Okinawan Princess was abducted by the Japanese raiders (they could have been Wako pirates, not Shimazu Clan) and sold into slavery in China. The abduction of Okinawan men and women was a common practice by raiders, both Japanese and Chinese pirates. The abducted Okinawans were sold into slavery, women into prostitution, men as slaves for rich families or companies.
According to popular legend, the abducted Okinawan Princess returned to the island several years later. But she was too ashamed to return to the palace in Shuri, so instead she opened the first fancy brothel on Okinawa and called it "The Tea House of the August Moon." Now, prostitution was alive and well on Okinawa even before the Japanese arrival, but there was nothing quite like the "tea house" that was established, patterned after the fancy brothels in China. It is said that the King of Okinawa would secretly meet with his daughter periodically when he travelled to Naha incognito, where the tea house was located. Whether this was true or not cannot be completely verified. There was a professor at Ryukyu University in the 1950s and 60s who was an expert on that period in history and he claimed it did happen. But, as far as it can be determined, there are only some sketchy written records. No doubt there are many instances of Okinawan women who were abducted and sold into prostitution in China, and some of them returned home to operate "tea houses." Whatever the case, it does make for an interesting story!
Those who had visited or lived on Okinawa prior to reversion to Japan in 1972, may remember that there was a "Tea House of the August Moon" located at Naminoue in Naha. It was not a brothel, and most of the time it had an "A" sign approval, although periodically it lost its "A" sign and was declared "off limits" to US military personnel. It was just a pseudo "geisha house" set up to appeal to American customers. Contrary to what many Americans may think, a geisha house is not a house of prostitution, although they may have been some brothels that called themselves "geisha houses!" So, despite the fact that the "modern" version of the "Tea House of the August Moon" took its name trying to capitalize on a popular movie of the 1950s, there may have very well been, in fact, a brothel by that name started by a former Princess, many years ago!
One of the smaller victims of the Imjin Wars was a tiny chain of islands south of Japan known as the Ryukyus (Loochoo in Chinese), Okinawa as it is known today. Before Toyotomi Hideoshi set off on his campaign to conquer Korea, he requested that the King of Ryukyus provide him with soldiers to help in his endeavor. He had planned to use the Ryukyuan (Okinawan) soldiers as a labor force. (It is interesting to note that Japan was finally able to do so during World War Two, use Okinawans as a labor force). The King of Ryukyus refused to provide troops to Hideoshi. After all, how could he, Ryukyu was a vassal state of Ming China, as was Chosun (Korea). The Japanese, however, did not forget this slight, and later Okinawa was to pay for it dearly.
The years 1609 through 1871 proved to be the darkest years of Ryukyuan (Okinawan) history. About a decade after the end of the Imjin Wars in 1598, the Shimazu Clan of Satsuma in Kyushu landed on Okinawa and proceeded to terrorize the island nation. Shortly, Okinawa ended up paying tribute to two countries, to China and Japan! The Chinese refused to step-in and intervene when the Japanese came to the islands. The Japanese, on the other hand, came to Okinawa when they knew the Chinese would not be there. So the two never met, but came separately, one (China) to trade legitimately, the other (Japan) to exploit the islands. The Shimazu Clan forbid Okinawans to own swords or any weaponry. It is said that the Chinese Shaolin monks introduced Kung Fu to Okinawans so they could defend themselves against the Japanese raiders, thus the Okinawan Shotokan Karate was born - at least that is what the popular legend claims.
Another thing that occurred during this period was supposedly an Okinawan Princess was abducted by the Japanese raiders (they could have been Wako pirates, not Shimazu Clan) and sold into slavery in China. The abduction of Okinawan men and women was a common practice by raiders, both Japanese and Chinese pirates. The abducted Okinawans were sold into slavery, women into prostitution, men as slaves for rich families or companies.
According to popular legend, the abducted Okinawan Princess returned to the island several years later. But she was too ashamed to return to the palace in Shuri, so instead she opened the first fancy brothel on Okinawa and called it "The Tea House of the August Moon." Now, prostitution was alive and well on Okinawa even before the Japanese arrival, but there was nothing quite like the "tea house" that was established, patterned after the fancy brothels in China. It is said that the King of Okinawa would secretly meet with his daughter periodically when he travelled to Naha incognito, where the tea house was located. Whether this was true or not cannot be completely verified. There was a professor at Ryukyu University in the 1950s and 60s who was an expert on that period in history and he claimed it did happen. But, as far as it can be determined, there are only some sketchy written records. No doubt there are many instances of Okinawan women who were abducted and sold into prostitution in China, and some of them returned home to operate "tea houses." Whatever the case, it does make for an interesting story!
Those who had visited or lived on Okinawa prior to reversion to Japan in 1972, may remember that there was a "Tea House of the August Moon" located at Naminoue in Naha. It was not a brothel, and most of the time it had an "A" sign approval, although periodically it lost its "A" sign and was declared "off limits" to US military personnel. It was just a pseudo "geisha house" set up to appeal to American customers. Contrary to what many Americans may think, a geisha house is not a house of prostitution, although they may have been some brothels that called themselves "geisha houses!" So, despite the fact that the "modern" version of the "Tea House of the August Moon" took its name trying to capitalize on a popular movie of the 1950s, there may have very well been, in fact, a brothel by that name started by a former Princess, many years ago!
Wednesday, August 6, 2014
"The Imjin Wars"
Most western history books do not pay much attention to what happened on the Korean peninsula in the late 16th Century, during what was called "The Imjin Wars." The Mongols' attempted conquest of the world and the subsequent attempted invasion of Japan in the 13th Century is mentioned, but not in detail, and the later Manchu conquest of China is also mentioned, but again, not in detail. This, the Mongol and Manchu conquests, had to be mentioned since they established two very important dynasties in China, the Yuan and the Ching Dynasties. However, the Imjin Wars that took place between Korea and Japan are rarely if ever mentioned. Yet, these two Japanese attempts at conquest of Korea had an enormous impact on the history of Asia and the rise of Japan as a world power. It was also during Imjin Wars that a minor Manchu Chieftan by the name of Nurhachi first received notice. Nurhachi set out to conquer China shortly after the Imjin Wars and his descendants succeeded in the 17th Century and established the Ching Dynasty in China. So, the Imjin Wars had an overall effect on Asian history, not just Korea and Japan.
In 1592, a powerful and ambitious Japanese Daimyo (the ruling class) by the name of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, convinced others in Japan that he could conquer Korea (at the time it was Chosun Dynasty) and make it a Japanese colony. Japan had been involved almost in constant civil war for centuries and the united Japanese army was strong, powerful, and very experienced. In contrast, the Korean (Chosun) army was small, inexperienced, and lacking leadership. The Chosun government was also somewhat weak and corrupt at the time. So, the first Imjin War was launched when Japanese forces invaded Korea. They enjoyed great success and pushed all the way to Manchurian border. The Japanese sacked the capital Seoul and the northern city of Pyongyang (former capital of Koguryo Empire). The Korean army was in disarray and no match for the well trained and disciplined, and experienced Japanese army. The Japanese were also mostly armed with matchlocks, a technology that they first picked up from the Mongols and later improved upon by Portuguese technology. The Koreans had nothing of a kind and the Korean leaders resisted the new technology of firearms and insisted on bows and arrows. So, the Japanese literally cut through the Korean defenders with hardly any resistance.
However, by the time they reached the Manchurian border, they had overstretched their supply lines, and although they were winning on land, they were losing at sea. A great Korean Admiral, Yi Soong Shin, had developed the armored (iron clad) "turtle" boats which played havoc on Japanese supply ships. Additionally, at the Manchurian border, the Manchus (Jurchens) under the leadership of Nurhachi stepped in. The Japanese made the mistake of crossing the border and raiding one of the Jurchen castles. The Jurchens, although small in numbers, were fierce fighters and they drove the Japanese south. However, rather than making allies out of Jurchens, the Korean king snubbed Nurhachi, saying that Chosun would not ally itself with savages! Nurhachi didn't forget the snub and vowed to make Chosun pay for it. In the meantime, the war came to a stalemate and the Japanese forces withdrew.
Then Hideyoshi launched a second invasion, the second Imjin War in 1597. The second war lasted only a year. The Chinese Ming Dynasty sent troops to help Chosun and together they were able to inflict heavy damage on the invaders. Then to compound the situation for the Japanese, Hideyoshi died and the Japanese forces were recalled back to Japan.
However, the Japanese did not leave empty handed. The Japanese had always admired and prized various artifacts from Korea, especially pottery, lacquer-ware, porcelain, and gold jewelry. Over 70,000 artisans, pottery workers, lacquer specialists, porcelain experts, goldsmiths, etc., were kidnapped and brought to Japan. In Kyushu, the famous Satsuma pottery was started, and in towns called Arita and Imari, porcelain centers were built. Goldsmiths were brought to Kyoto and Edo (Tokyo). Ever wonder how the famous Japanese pottery and porcelain got started? It was from the Korean "prisoners" that Japan had brought back from Imjin Wars.
For centuries, two of the most bothersome, and costly adversaries of both Korea and China were the Jurchen (Manchu) raiders and Wako (Japanese) pirates. The Jurchens mainly pillaged and took valuables. The Japanese pirates not only pillaged and kidnapped women, but also kidnapped various craftsmen that they brought back to Japan. So, when the Ming Dynasty army stepped in to help Chosun fight Japanese, they naturally sent their army by way of Manchuria. The Ming army indiscriminately killed and pillaged whatever Manchus settlements they encountered on their way. This did not sit well with Nurhachi, the Jurchen Chief, he vowed to avenge those who suffered under Ming army. It wasn't long after the end of the Imjin Wars that Nurhachi launched his invasion of China, only with a handful of warriors!
In 1592, a powerful and ambitious Japanese Daimyo (the ruling class) by the name of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, convinced others in Japan that he could conquer Korea (at the time it was Chosun Dynasty) and make it a Japanese colony. Japan had been involved almost in constant civil war for centuries and the united Japanese army was strong, powerful, and very experienced. In contrast, the Korean (Chosun) army was small, inexperienced, and lacking leadership. The Chosun government was also somewhat weak and corrupt at the time. So, the first Imjin War was launched when Japanese forces invaded Korea. They enjoyed great success and pushed all the way to Manchurian border. The Japanese sacked the capital Seoul and the northern city of Pyongyang (former capital of Koguryo Empire). The Korean army was in disarray and no match for the well trained and disciplined, and experienced Japanese army. The Japanese were also mostly armed with matchlocks, a technology that they first picked up from the Mongols and later improved upon by Portuguese technology. The Koreans had nothing of a kind and the Korean leaders resisted the new technology of firearms and insisted on bows and arrows. So, the Japanese literally cut through the Korean defenders with hardly any resistance.
However, by the time they reached the Manchurian border, they had overstretched their supply lines, and although they were winning on land, they were losing at sea. A great Korean Admiral, Yi Soong Shin, had developed the armored (iron clad) "turtle" boats which played havoc on Japanese supply ships. Additionally, at the Manchurian border, the Manchus (Jurchens) under the leadership of Nurhachi stepped in. The Japanese made the mistake of crossing the border and raiding one of the Jurchen castles. The Jurchens, although small in numbers, were fierce fighters and they drove the Japanese south. However, rather than making allies out of Jurchens, the Korean king snubbed Nurhachi, saying that Chosun would not ally itself with savages! Nurhachi didn't forget the snub and vowed to make Chosun pay for it. In the meantime, the war came to a stalemate and the Japanese forces withdrew.
Then Hideyoshi launched a second invasion, the second Imjin War in 1597. The second war lasted only a year. The Chinese Ming Dynasty sent troops to help Chosun and together they were able to inflict heavy damage on the invaders. Then to compound the situation for the Japanese, Hideyoshi died and the Japanese forces were recalled back to Japan.
However, the Japanese did not leave empty handed. The Japanese had always admired and prized various artifacts from Korea, especially pottery, lacquer-ware, porcelain, and gold jewelry. Over 70,000 artisans, pottery workers, lacquer specialists, porcelain experts, goldsmiths, etc., were kidnapped and brought to Japan. In Kyushu, the famous Satsuma pottery was started, and in towns called Arita and Imari, porcelain centers were built. Goldsmiths were brought to Kyoto and Edo (Tokyo). Ever wonder how the famous Japanese pottery and porcelain got started? It was from the Korean "prisoners" that Japan had brought back from Imjin Wars.
For centuries, two of the most bothersome, and costly adversaries of both Korea and China were the Jurchen (Manchu) raiders and Wako (Japanese) pirates. The Jurchens mainly pillaged and took valuables. The Japanese pirates not only pillaged and kidnapped women, but also kidnapped various craftsmen that they brought back to Japan. So, when the Ming Dynasty army stepped in to help Chosun fight Japanese, they naturally sent their army by way of Manchuria. The Ming army indiscriminately killed and pillaged whatever Manchus settlements they encountered on their way. This did not sit well with Nurhachi, the Jurchen Chief, he vowed to avenge those who suffered under Ming army. It wasn't long after the end of the Imjin Wars that Nurhachi launched his invasion of China, only with a handful of warriors!
Sunday, August 3, 2014
"Hi-Tech or Modern, not always the best"
History books tell us that when Mongols invaded or attempted to invade Japan, they were defeated by a combination of typhoons and Japanese defenders. That is certainly what had happened, but it doesn't tell the whole story, there is more to it.
During both ill-fated Mongol invasions, the early and smaller one in 1274 and the much larger one in 1281, the Mongol army was predominantly made up of non-Mongol forces. At least three fourths of the invasion force was made up of Chinese and Korean soldiers. Kublai Khan and his Mongol generals were very much into hi-tech of that period, namely, the use of gun powder. The bulk of the invasion force was made up of musketeers armed with state of the art matchlocks. Only the Mongolian forces were not carrying matchlocks. The Mongols were armed with their traditional bow and arrows and they were transporting their horses as well, since the Mongols depended on the mounted army. The Chinese soldiers, which made up at least half of the invasion force, were armed with matchlocks and were also charged with manning the cannons and rockets. The smaller Korean forces were archers like Mongols, but not mounted. This was the basic organization of Mongol invasion force.
When the typhoon struck during the first invasion, some of the invasion force had landed on the beaches, but they were unable to get organized with their formations, for the storm was fierce and the rain poured down in sheets, as is normal in a typhoon. The matchlocks became completely useless, since the gunpowder was soaked in rain. The same thing happened to the cannons, the few that were landed. The Mongol archers were unable to get on horseback (many of the horses perished in the storm) and utilize their classic tactics. The Mongols needed room to maneuver with their horses and they found no room! They were easy targets for the Japanese who were armed with swords and spears. Closing in on the Mongol army, the Japanese cut them down without much problem.
The second larger invasion met almost exactly the same fate. Before the second invasion was launched, some Mongol generals discussed the fact that in the earlier invasion the gunpowder became wet and useless so the vast majority of the invasion force was for all practical purposes, unarmed! Some suggested going back to the old Chingis Khan days and relying not just on bows and arrows and matchlocks, but spears and swords as well. However, it was decided that what had happened during the first invasion was an anomaly and that they would continue to field a modern army with matchlocks, rockets, and cannons. The second invasion, as we know now, was met with even a stronger typhoon and the Mongols were forced to pull back their forces off the beaches and call off the invasion, after getting chewed-up by sword bearing Japanese samurai warriors.
So, it appears that "hi tech or modern equipment is not always the best." At least it wasn't in Mongols' case. The old gunpowder was highly susceptible to humidity and wetness, so when a downpour such as a typhoon took place, all of the gunpowder became useless. Perhaps with today's waterproofing technology things would not have turned out that way, but back then, such technology did not exist and the Mongols paid for it. Today, we are highly reliant on hi-tech stuff such as drones, smart bombs, and other equipment that didn't even exist during Vietnam or even the first Gulf War. But there are times that it seems we rely too much on the hi-tech stuff and have forgotten that sometimes low-tech works best!
During both ill-fated Mongol invasions, the early and smaller one in 1274 and the much larger one in 1281, the Mongol army was predominantly made up of non-Mongol forces. At least three fourths of the invasion force was made up of Chinese and Korean soldiers. Kublai Khan and his Mongol generals were very much into hi-tech of that period, namely, the use of gun powder. The bulk of the invasion force was made up of musketeers armed with state of the art matchlocks. Only the Mongolian forces were not carrying matchlocks. The Mongols were armed with their traditional bow and arrows and they were transporting their horses as well, since the Mongols depended on the mounted army. The Chinese soldiers, which made up at least half of the invasion force, were armed with matchlocks and were also charged with manning the cannons and rockets. The smaller Korean forces were archers like Mongols, but not mounted. This was the basic organization of Mongol invasion force.
When the typhoon struck during the first invasion, some of the invasion force had landed on the beaches, but they were unable to get organized with their formations, for the storm was fierce and the rain poured down in sheets, as is normal in a typhoon. The matchlocks became completely useless, since the gunpowder was soaked in rain. The same thing happened to the cannons, the few that were landed. The Mongol archers were unable to get on horseback (many of the horses perished in the storm) and utilize their classic tactics. The Mongols needed room to maneuver with their horses and they found no room! They were easy targets for the Japanese who were armed with swords and spears. Closing in on the Mongol army, the Japanese cut them down without much problem.
The second larger invasion met almost exactly the same fate. Before the second invasion was launched, some Mongol generals discussed the fact that in the earlier invasion the gunpowder became wet and useless so the vast majority of the invasion force was for all practical purposes, unarmed! Some suggested going back to the old Chingis Khan days and relying not just on bows and arrows and matchlocks, but spears and swords as well. However, it was decided that what had happened during the first invasion was an anomaly and that they would continue to field a modern army with matchlocks, rockets, and cannons. The second invasion, as we know now, was met with even a stronger typhoon and the Mongols were forced to pull back their forces off the beaches and call off the invasion, after getting chewed-up by sword bearing Japanese samurai warriors.
So, it appears that "hi tech or modern equipment is not always the best." At least it wasn't in Mongols' case. The old gunpowder was highly susceptible to humidity and wetness, so when a downpour such as a typhoon took place, all of the gunpowder became useless. Perhaps with today's waterproofing technology things would not have turned out that way, but back then, such technology did not exist and the Mongols paid for it. Today, we are highly reliant on hi-tech stuff such as drones, smart bombs, and other equipment that didn't even exist during Vietnam or even the first Gulf War. But there are times that it seems we rely too much on the hi-tech stuff and have forgotten that sometimes low-tech works best!
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