As already stated in previous blogs, Russians led the way in the first half of the 20th Century when it came to using women in combat in both world wars. The Israelis picked up where the Russians left off and carried on with women in combat during the second half of the 20th Century. The Arab-Israeli conflicts seemed to take place every two years or so, and Israel's clashes with the Hamas appears to be a daily happening, so Israeli women are exposed to combat constantly. But it is the United States, which had a very slow beginning in this particular area, that has now become a leader in employing women in combat.
Going back to the American Revolutionary War, a young woman disguised as a man enlisted in the Continental Army and fought with distinction. Deborah Sampson managed to hide her gender until she was wounded. That was when it was discovered that she was not a man, but a woman! However, George Washington himself awarded her the Purple Heart, an award that he created, and gave her an honorable discharge rather than dismissing her from the army on the grounds of false enlistment. But this was an isolated case. Another woman, Molly Pitcher, manned a cannon battery during a battle, but she was not in the Continental Army. She just took over the cannon battery when the artillery men were killed.
During the American Civil War there were more women engaged in combat than during the War of Independence. But, they all disguised themselves as men, since women were not permitted to enlist on either side. Francis Clalin enlisted under the name of Jack Williams and fought for the Union. Sarah Pritchard also fought as an irregular for the South but later switched to the Union side and Jennie Hodgens enlisted as Albert Cashier and fought for the Union. There were others, but there is no accurate record of their participation in combat.
In 1918 the Marine Corps Women Reserve was formed but deactivated shortly after. It wasn't until World War Two, 1941 when Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WACs) and the Women's Navel Reserve were formed and the Marine Corps Women's Reserve (BAMs) was reactivated. There was absolutely no move to use women in combat in any capacity by any branches of service. Only the OSS used women in combat, as already described in previous blogs. Virginia Hall was the most notable woman who saw combat with OSS. In uniform services, women were used in clerical capacity and as nurses in the field hospitals. There were qualified women pilots who volunteered to fly for the Army Air Corps, but they were only used to ferry planes from factories to wherever they were needed. The U.S. refused to allow women to fly in combat, as Russian did! During the Korean War and even the Vietnam War, women were still barred from many military occupations, in fact, none of the services were fully integrated.
The late 1960s and the early 1970s the Women's Movement in America became a watershed in a sense that many jobs in the military previously closed to women were opened up. First the three service academies began to accept women as cadets. Then in 1974, 6 women became the first female U.S. Navy aviators. From that point on, despite resistance from various sectors, women were admitted to more and more jobs that were previously closed to them in the military. By the close of the 20th Century, the U.S. military was beginning to change dramatically in regard to women in various jobs. The first Gulf War saw some changes, women in jobs previously held only by men. There were pilots, mostly transport, but some combat planes, that were flown by women. It wasn't until the new century and the Iraq and Afghan Wars that women in combat began to really show.
Today, there are numerous women who served in combat. We have a woman who was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross, numerous Silver Star recipients and Air Medals and Bronze Stars with a "V" for valor. Purple Heart recipients are numbered in the thousands! There are women of General Officer rank in every branch of the service now, something that was unthinkable a few decades ago.
Perhaps the one woman that represents this new generation of American Women Warriors better than anyone else is Tammy Duckworth, the current Congresswoman from Illinois who is a double amputee, having lost both legs in combat when her Blackhawk was shot down by an RPG in Iraq.
Tammy was born in Thailand of American and Thai/Chinese parents. She graduated from McKinley High School in Hawaii and received a BA from University of Hawaii. She was commissioned as a second lieutenant after the ROTC program at George Washington University where she received an MA. She became a Blackhawk helicopter pilot and was deployed to Iraq where she saw combat and was wounded. She stayed in the Army despite losing both legs and left the service as a Lieutenant Colonel when she ran for political office. She is the first Asian-American woman to serve in Congress from Illinois. She was also appointed as Assistant Secretary for the Department of Veteran Affairs in 2006, before she became a Congresswoman.
Tammy Duckworth is not the only American Woman Warrior with incredible accomplishments, there are many others! She is a good example though, because she is in such a visible position as a Congresswoman.
Today, America leads all other nations in the number of women serving in the military. There are approximately 350,000 women in all branches of service. America has more fighter, bomber, and helicopter women pilots than any other country. The US Marines integrated and began accepting women for regular Marine Corps service, no longer the "BAMs," back in the 1970s just as the Army eliminated the WACs. The Air Force and Navy has numerous fighter and helicopter pilots that are women. The Army too has many female helicopter pilots and tank drivers and commanders! Most recently, the Army agreed to open Ranger School training to women. Women are still barred from service with Navy Seals, Marine Corps Force Recon, Army Rangers and Army Special Forces. But women are making very fast progress in gaining access to previously closed occupations. Right now, women are still barred from serving in the infantry as well as the Special Operations Units in combat roles, but it will no doubt change.
Tuesday, September 30, 2014
Saturday, September 27, 2014
Women Warriors - Israeli Defense Force
No discussion of women in combat in the modern era can take place without the inclusion of the Israeli Defense Force (IDF). The Russians may have pioneered the use of women in combat in the 20th Century with the first all women infantry unit in the First World War, but it was the Israelis that picked up where the Russians left off in 1945.
The Israelis employed women in combat during their war of independence against the British from 1946 until their independence in 1948. The haganah, irgun, and lehi, all employed women in combat. Of course they were essentially paramilitary organizations like partisans, but, nevertheless, Israeli women fought along side the men during their war of independence. After independence, the Israeli women had to continue to bear arms in the kibbutz commune settlements. They had to, the Israeli population is not large and there just weren't enough men to handle all of security duties. The numerous Arab-Israeli wars that followed saw Israeli women participate in various roles, including combat. But even in Israel, there was resistance from the male dominated military establishment in having women in combat roles. But necessity trumped any resistance that may have surfaced.
Women in Israel are subject to compulsory military service (draft) just like men. All women must serve 3 years of active duty and the rest as reservists until age 38. Exceptions are made in case of religious, medical, or family grounds, but otherwise, all females in Israel between the ages of 18 and 38 must serve in the military. The 3 years active duty does not have to be consecutive, it could be broken up into two or even three separate services.
Although Israeli women have been serving in the IDF since 1948 when it was formed, they were not allowed into all military jobs initially. Despite restrictions, women saw combat simply because such a small nation, constantly attacked by its Arab neighbors, could not pick and choose when or where they would be attacked. So women were often exposed to combat even if they were not serving in combat roles.
In some areas, Israel was slow in allowing women to become part of the organization. Women, for example, were not allowed to become fighter pilots until fairly recently, in the 21st Century. But then, Israeli Air Force is tiny compared to ours or other nations. Also, for a long time it was hard for women to get promoted to higher ranks. It wasn't until 2011 that a woman, Orna Barbivai was promoted to Major General (two star). But, the highest rank in the IDF is Lieutenant General (three star). Unlike our military, the smaller IDF just does not have that much rank!
The IDF is no doubt the most experienced and combat tested military in the world. They have been in constant warfare since 1948, going on 70 years! Women first participated in combat in separate units and were first integrated into platoon sized elite recon units called caracal (or karakal), named after an elusive, secretive desert cat. The caracal unit has grown in size since its first creation decades ago. It is now battalion sized (about 450 soldiers) and 60 percent are women! It is fully integrated. Israeli women are also integrated in regular infantry and armor (tank) units as well as in the elite border patrol, which is not like our Border Patrol that is mainly occupied with chasing illegal aliens. The Israeli Border Police or Patrol is a combat unit that is essentially Israel's first line of defense.
IDF allowed women in airborne and commando training early on, and whether infantry, armor, air, or sea, requires women to undergo exactly the same training as men. This means that there is a higher failure rate in the physical training part for women, still, there are enough that pass so that IDF has women serving in just about in every capacity in all branches of service.
Currently 92% of the jobs in IDF are open to women. Without a doubt the IDF is the current pioneer in employing women warriors. Most other countries, including the United States, use the Israeli template to integrate women into their services. Of the Western European countries, Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, all have allowed women into combat roles. Asian countries have used women as well. North Vietnam employed women in various roles including anti-aircraft batteries, and North Koreans had women guerrillas during the Korean War. So, the role of women in combat is not new, but Israel appears to have taken the lead at the present time. Most surprising of all, an Arab country, the United Arab Emirate, has a woman F-16 pilot that participated in the recent bombing of ISIS targets in Syria. That is almost shocking, to have a female fighter pilot in a Muslim society that generally considers women as chattel! But, I guess times are changing, and hopefully even Islam will change with times!
The Israelis employed women in combat during their war of independence against the British from 1946 until their independence in 1948. The haganah, irgun, and lehi, all employed women in combat. Of course they were essentially paramilitary organizations like partisans, but, nevertheless, Israeli women fought along side the men during their war of independence. After independence, the Israeli women had to continue to bear arms in the kibbutz commune settlements. They had to, the Israeli population is not large and there just weren't enough men to handle all of security duties. The numerous Arab-Israeli wars that followed saw Israeli women participate in various roles, including combat. But even in Israel, there was resistance from the male dominated military establishment in having women in combat roles. But necessity trumped any resistance that may have surfaced.
Women in Israel are subject to compulsory military service (draft) just like men. All women must serve 3 years of active duty and the rest as reservists until age 38. Exceptions are made in case of religious, medical, or family grounds, but otherwise, all females in Israel between the ages of 18 and 38 must serve in the military. The 3 years active duty does not have to be consecutive, it could be broken up into two or even three separate services.
Although Israeli women have been serving in the IDF since 1948 when it was formed, they were not allowed into all military jobs initially. Despite restrictions, women saw combat simply because such a small nation, constantly attacked by its Arab neighbors, could not pick and choose when or where they would be attacked. So women were often exposed to combat even if they were not serving in combat roles.
In some areas, Israel was slow in allowing women to become part of the organization. Women, for example, were not allowed to become fighter pilots until fairly recently, in the 21st Century. But then, Israeli Air Force is tiny compared to ours or other nations. Also, for a long time it was hard for women to get promoted to higher ranks. It wasn't until 2011 that a woman, Orna Barbivai was promoted to Major General (two star). But, the highest rank in the IDF is Lieutenant General (three star). Unlike our military, the smaller IDF just does not have that much rank!
The IDF is no doubt the most experienced and combat tested military in the world. They have been in constant warfare since 1948, going on 70 years! Women first participated in combat in separate units and were first integrated into platoon sized elite recon units called caracal (or karakal), named after an elusive, secretive desert cat. The caracal unit has grown in size since its first creation decades ago. It is now battalion sized (about 450 soldiers) and 60 percent are women! It is fully integrated. Israeli women are also integrated in regular infantry and armor (tank) units as well as in the elite border patrol, which is not like our Border Patrol that is mainly occupied with chasing illegal aliens. The Israeli Border Police or Patrol is a combat unit that is essentially Israel's first line of defense.
IDF allowed women in airborne and commando training early on, and whether infantry, armor, air, or sea, requires women to undergo exactly the same training as men. This means that there is a higher failure rate in the physical training part for women, still, there are enough that pass so that IDF has women serving in just about in every capacity in all branches of service.
Currently 92% of the jobs in IDF are open to women. Without a doubt the IDF is the current pioneer in employing women warriors. Most other countries, including the United States, use the Israeli template to integrate women into their services. Of the Western European countries, Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, New Zealand, Norway, all have allowed women into combat roles. Asian countries have used women as well. North Vietnam employed women in various roles including anti-aircraft batteries, and North Koreans had women guerrillas during the Korean War. So, the role of women in combat is not new, but Israel appears to have taken the lead at the present time. Most surprising of all, an Arab country, the United Arab Emirate, has a woman F-16 pilot that participated in the recent bombing of ISIS targets in Syria. That is almost shocking, to have a female fighter pilot in a Muslim society that generally considers women as chattel! But, I guess times are changing, and hopefully even Islam will change with times!
Wednesday, September 24, 2014
Women Warriors - Soldiers/Partisans
If my blogs on women warriors seem to lean heavily on Russian women, that is because as I explained earlier, Russian women participated in combat in much larger numbers than women in any other countries. The tradition of using women in combat seems to go back quite a bit in Russian history and the first significant number of women serving in combat took place during World War One. But it was nothing compared to what took place during World War Two.
During World War Two, roughly 800,000 to 1 million women served in one form or another. The numbers are a bit fuzzy because there were no accurate figures kept on irregular or partisan forces, and many women served as partisans.
Initially there was resistance in some areas to have women serve in combat, but as the situation became more and more desperate and manpower shortages became acute, that resistance began to fade. Female units were formed both in infantry and armor. I've already mentioned the three female fighter pilot regiments in the earlier blog. There were, however, women who flew bombers as well, integrated into regular air force units. The infantry and armor units were not integrated but kept separate. Snipers, however, who were part of the infantry, were integrated into male units. There were a number of accomplished women tank commanders in armor, and in infantry, several machine- gunners gained fame during the war. Manshuk Mametova, a young woman from Kazakhstan was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union (equivalent to our Medal of Honor) for her heroic performance in combat. Like female snipers, women machine-gunners seem to excel in their performance and operating the machinegun. In all, 89 women were awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union Medal during World War Two!
Although Russian women excelled in uniform service as pilots, tank commanders, machine-gunners, etc., it was as partisan that they really made a huge impact. Unlike in uniform service, the guerrilla or partisan units had a much higher ratio of women. That made sense, because most men of military age were already in uniform. Men were inducted or drafted into military service, women were not. So, when the war started to go badly, and that was right from the start, many young women took to the hills and joined the partisans rather than staying in their villages and towns that were occupied by the enemy.
Like the young and beautiful Roza Shanina who became the face of Russian women snipers, Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya became the face of the Russian women partisans. Zoya became the first woman to be awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union. The beautiful teenager was 18 when she joined the partisans after witnessing the cruelty of German SS troops in her town. During her short career as a partisan, she performed some very important missions but was caught by the SS. She was raped, beaten, and stripped naked in the middle of the winter to be executed in the town square. Through all the torture and rape, she did not divulge a single piece of information. The SS paraded her naked through the town, in front of her mother and relatives, before they hanged her in the town square. The incredibly brave teenager did not cry or otherwise break down, instead, before she was executed, she shouted defiantly, "You can't kill us all!" Her act and her words became the battle cry for the partisans, sort of like Nathan Hale's, "Give me liberty or give me death!"
Another teenager, Zinaida Portnova was all of 15 when she joined the partisans! Just think about it, she would have been a sophomore in high school! Zinaida fought as a partisan for 3 years before she too was captured by the SS, raped and tortured, and executed on her 18th birthday! She too was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union. There were many others like Zinaida and Zoya. What these young women did, all of them (from fighter pilots to snipers and partisans), was to establish a proud tradition of women warriors in Russia, not something that dated back to ancient times, mixed with folklore and shrouded in legend, but something that was more recent, factual, very visible and with photographic and documentary proof of heroism and accomplishments.
Today there are approximately 100,000 to 150,000 women serving in the Russian military. They range from pilots to tank drivers, to administrative duties. Except for assignment to SPETNAZ, the Russian Special Forces, women serve in all capacities including as infantry soldiers in paratroop and marine units. Interestingly, women soldiers compete in "Miss Army" contest annually, a beauty contest! The winner is awarded the title plus a monetary prize and appears on cheesecake posters and television talk shows! The Russian army says that they hold these contests for morale purposes and to dispel any ideas that Russian female soldiers are masculine, "Valkyrie-like" women, an image that is often portrayed by the western media.
During World War Two, roughly 800,000 to 1 million women served in one form or another. The numbers are a bit fuzzy because there were no accurate figures kept on irregular or partisan forces, and many women served as partisans.
Initially there was resistance in some areas to have women serve in combat, but as the situation became more and more desperate and manpower shortages became acute, that resistance began to fade. Female units were formed both in infantry and armor. I've already mentioned the three female fighter pilot regiments in the earlier blog. There were, however, women who flew bombers as well, integrated into regular air force units. The infantry and armor units were not integrated but kept separate. Snipers, however, who were part of the infantry, were integrated into male units. There were a number of accomplished women tank commanders in armor, and in infantry, several machine- gunners gained fame during the war. Manshuk Mametova, a young woman from Kazakhstan was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union (equivalent to our Medal of Honor) for her heroic performance in combat. Like female snipers, women machine-gunners seem to excel in their performance and operating the machinegun. In all, 89 women were awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union Medal during World War Two!
Although Russian women excelled in uniform service as pilots, tank commanders, machine-gunners, etc., it was as partisan that they really made a huge impact. Unlike in uniform service, the guerrilla or partisan units had a much higher ratio of women. That made sense, because most men of military age were already in uniform. Men were inducted or drafted into military service, women were not. So, when the war started to go badly, and that was right from the start, many young women took to the hills and joined the partisans rather than staying in their villages and towns that were occupied by the enemy.
Like the young and beautiful Roza Shanina who became the face of Russian women snipers, Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya became the face of the Russian women partisans. Zoya became the first woman to be awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union. The beautiful teenager was 18 when she joined the partisans after witnessing the cruelty of German SS troops in her town. During her short career as a partisan, she performed some very important missions but was caught by the SS. She was raped, beaten, and stripped naked in the middle of the winter to be executed in the town square. Through all the torture and rape, she did not divulge a single piece of information. The SS paraded her naked through the town, in front of her mother and relatives, before they hanged her in the town square. The incredibly brave teenager did not cry or otherwise break down, instead, before she was executed, she shouted defiantly, "You can't kill us all!" Her act and her words became the battle cry for the partisans, sort of like Nathan Hale's, "Give me liberty or give me death!"
Another teenager, Zinaida Portnova was all of 15 when she joined the partisans! Just think about it, she would have been a sophomore in high school! Zinaida fought as a partisan for 3 years before she too was captured by the SS, raped and tortured, and executed on her 18th birthday! She too was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union. There were many others like Zinaida and Zoya. What these young women did, all of them (from fighter pilots to snipers and partisans), was to establish a proud tradition of women warriors in Russia, not something that dated back to ancient times, mixed with folklore and shrouded in legend, but something that was more recent, factual, very visible and with photographic and documentary proof of heroism and accomplishments.
Today there are approximately 100,000 to 150,000 women serving in the Russian military. They range from pilots to tank drivers, to administrative duties. Except for assignment to SPETNAZ, the Russian Special Forces, women serve in all capacities including as infantry soldiers in paratroop and marine units. Interestingly, women soldiers compete in "Miss Army" contest annually, a beauty contest! The winner is awarded the title plus a monetary prize and appears on cheesecake posters and television talk shows! The Russian army says that they hold these contests for morale purposes and to dispel any ideas that Russian female soldiers are masculine, "Valkyrie-like" women, an image that is often portrayed by the western media.
Sunday, September 21, 2014
Women Warriors - Snipers
During World War Two, the two countries that used snipers the most were Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union Russia. Although we had snipers both in the Army and the Marine Corps, we did not employ snipers as widely as the Germans and the Russians. In fact, all adversaries during that terrible blood-letting had snipers, but none like the Germans and Russians, and Russians were the only ones to employ female snipers.
As already explained in the previous blogs, the Russians were forced to use women in combat because of the losses they suffered at the outset of the war and manpower shortages were critical. Women snipers were probably one of the first female combat troops used by the Soviet Union and they were also the only women snipers in the war. There may have been some female snipers with some of the resistance/partisan groups in other countries, but not quite like the Soviet women sniper corps!
Fighter pilots were considered "aces" if they shot down 5 or more enemy aircraft. Snipers did not have an "ace" category, but some sort of a yardstick had to be established to determine the effectiveness or success of a sniper. The number 50 was used to establish the bona fide or "qualifications" of a sniper. There were many snipers with kills in the single and double digits, but not all that many with numbers that reached 50.
Each kill had to be verified by another, usually the sniper's assistant, since snipers worked in pairs for the most part. However, snipers also worked solo and those kills could not be officially recognized. For instance, Vasily Zaitsev, the Soviet sniper of the Enemy at the Gates movie fame, had 242 officially recognized kills, those that were verified by his assistant sniper. But Vasily claimed over 400 kills, but they were unverified, therefore, never officially recognized. The top sniper of World War Two was the Russian Mihail Surkov with 702 confirmed kills. The top German sniper was Simo Hayha with 505 kills.
There were over 25 women snipers with kills over 50! The top woman sniper was Ludmila Pavlichenko with 309 confirmed kills. Another woman sniper, Liba Rugova had 242 confirmed kills, the same as Vasili Zaitsev! But the poster girl for Russian women snipers was the beautiful blond Roza Shanina. She registered only 54 kills, but what is remarkable about her record is that she captured 6 German soldiers single handedly, and also killed 12 German snipers! Roza was a highly successful anti-sniper sniper! Only Ludmila Pavlichenko had higher sniper kill with 30, but she didn't capture any German soldiers like Roza! One of the reasons that Roza's numbers weren't as gaudy as Ludmila's and others was because after her success, especially the capture of German soldiers, she was used to recruit other female snipers. She was brought back to the rear to pose for photograph sessions and to recruit new snipers. Roza became a sniper at 19, and she was killed when she was only 21 in an artillery bombardment, not as a sniper!
Ludmila's 309 kills and Liba's 242 may not impress some, but consider that we did not have any snipers in World War Two that exceeded the kill number over 50. Our top snipers of Vietnam War (where we used snipers extensively) were, Adelbert Waldren of US Army with 109 kills and Carlos Hathcock of US Marines with 93 kills. When you compare those numbers with that of the Russian women's numbers, then the significance of their accomplishment becomes quite apparent.
Russian sniper instructors found that women made excellent shooters. Women seem to have a better sense of trigger and breath control, two of the most important elements of good shooting. Male egos may suffer from hearing this, but anyone who has done any shooting instruction of mixed groups will tell you that women are easier to teach good shooting fundamentals. Some men seem to feel that somehow shooting ability is in their province, a sort of a god given right, that shooting ability somehow "belongs" to men! Obviously that is not so, as the Russians learned and employed so many women snipers, manpower shortage notwithstanding! It shouldn't be surprising. After all, the most remarkable shooter in our recent (or not so recent) past was Annie Oakley, a tiny woman who stood barely at five feet in her stockings!
As already explained in the previous blogs, the Russians were forced to use women in combat because of the losses they suffered at the outset of the war and manpower shortages were critical. Women snipers were probably one of the first female combat troops used by the Soviet Union and they were also the only women snipers in the war. There may have been some female snipers with some of the resistance/partisan groups in other countries, but not quite like the Soviet women sniper corps!
Fighter pilots were considered "aces" if they shot down 5 or more enemy aircraft. Snipers did not have an "ace" category, but some sort of a yardstick had to be established to determine the effectiveness or success of a sniper. The number 50 was used to establish the bona fide or "qualifications" of a sniper. There were many snipers with kills in the single and double digits, but not all that many with numbers that reached 50.
Each kill had to be verified by another, usually the sniper's assistant, since snipers worked in pairs for the most part. However, snipers also worked solo and those kills could not be officially recognized. For instance, Vasily Zaitsev, the Soviet sniper of the Enemy at the Gates movie fame, had 242 officially recognized kills, those that were verified by his assistant sniper. But Vasily claimed over 400 kills, but they were unverified, therefore, never officially recognized. The top sniper of World War Two was the Russian Mihail Surkov with 702 confirmed kills. The top German sniper was Simo Hayha with 505 kills.
There were over 25 women snipers with kills over 50! The top woman sniper was Ludmila Pavlichenko with 309 confirmed kills. Another woman sniper, Liba Rugova had 242 confirmed kills, the same as Vasili Zaitsev! But the poster girl for Russian women snipers was the beautiful blond Roza Shanina. She registered only 54 kills, but what is remarkable about her record is that she captured 6 German soldiers single handedly, and also killed 12 German snipers! Roza was a highly successful anti-sniper sniper! Only Ludmila Pavlichenko had higher sniper kill with 30, but she didn't capture any German soldiers like Roza! One of the reasons that Roza's numbers weren't as gaudy as Ludmila's and others was because after her success, especially the capture of German soldiers, she was used to recruit other female snipers. She was brought back to the rear to pose for photograph sessions and to recruit new snipers. Roza became a sniper at 19, and she was killed when she was only 21 in an artillery bombardment, not as a sniper!
Ludmila's 309 kills and Liba's 242 may not impress some, but consider that we did not have any snipers in World War Two that exceeded the kill number over 50. Our top snipers of Vietnam War (where we used snipers extensively) were, Adelbert Waldren of US Army with 109 kills and Carlos Hathcock of US Marines with 93 kills. When you compare those numbers with that of the Russian women's numbers, then the significance of their accomplishment becomes quite apparent.
Russian sniper instructors found that women made excellent shooters. Women seem to have a better sense of trigger and breath control, two of the most important elements of good shooting. Male egos may suffer from hearing this, but anyone who has done any shooting instruction of mixed groups will tell you that women are easier to teach good shooting fundamentals. Some men seem to feel that somehow shooting ability is in their province, a sort of a god given right, that shooting ability somehow "belongs" to men! Obviously that is not so, as the Russians learned and employed so many women snipers, manpower shortage notwithstanding! It shouldn't be surprising. After all, the most remarkable shooter in our recent (or not so recent) past was Annie Oakley, a tiny woman who stood barely at five feet in her stockings!
Thursday, September 18, 2014
Women Warriors - Fighter Pilots
I would like to continue a discussion on the subject of women warriors because I feel it is an area that has not been sufficiently covered by the media, and women have not been given enough credit for the significant contribution to war efforts past and present. Media seems to only show interest when there is either Hollywood or other commercial aspect tied-in with the subject of women warriors, such a popular novel or a movie. Most of the names will be familiar to those who have read my previous blog on female warriors, so please bear with me.
Perhaps no country in the world (in the modern era) has utilized women in combat more than Russia, the former Soviet Union. It wasn't because the Russians and the Soviet Union was so enlightened and applied total gender equality, it was more out of necessity than anything else. That is why the Soviet Union had more female doctors, engineers, etc., than other countries. It actually dates back to the First World War when Russia used some women in combat because of shortage of trained men! But it was in the Second World War that women were used widely by the Soviets, at first reluctantly, in all areas of combat. In order to allow women to serve in combat, the Soviet Generals had to get approval from Stalin, who was perhaps the biggest male chauvinist in the Soviet Union at the time! So it was no small matter to convince the dictator that women should be allowed to participate in combat on equal footing with men. Stalin may not have liked the idea, but with such tremendous losses of men in the outset of the war (wholesale armies surrendered or were destroyed in the first year of the war), Stalin was forced to give in and allow women who were trained to participate in combat.
The Soviet Air Force was the first to see significant participation of women in combat. Marina Raskova, who was an accomplished pilot (sometimes called Amelia Earhart of Russia) formed the first all female Fighter Regiment, the 586th. This was soon followed by the 587th and 588th Fighter Regiments. It didn't take long, however, for the all female units to break up and be integrated into regular units, so women fighter and bomber pilots flew along side of male pilots. In fact, one of the Soviet Union's top "aces," Alexei Solomatin, for a while had as "wingmen" (wingwomen?) two female pilots, and he spoke very highly of them. He said they were as good as any male fighter pilot and he trusted his life to their ability.
The top Soviet female fighter pilot of World War Two was a young, beautiful, Lydia Litvyak. She is credited with having shot down 16 German planes. 12 were solo kills, and 4 were shared with other pilots. She flew a total of 66 combat missions in the short two year period that she was a fighter pilot. She was the world's first female "ace!" To become an "ace" you have to have shot down five enemy aircraft, Lydia more than doubled that number. She was killed in air combat over Kursk during a battle in 1943. She was all of 22 years old! To put this in perspective, if she was flying for the United States, she would have been considered one of the top fighter pilots, male or female!
The other Soviet female fighter pilot who became an "ace," only the second female "ace" in the history of aviation, was Yekaterina Butnova with 11 German aircraft shot down. Yekaterina was also killed in battle in 1943. She was older than Lydia, she was all of 27 when she was killed!
These two young women would have been considered top fighter pilots in any country, regardless of their sex. They just happened to be female. To date, they are the only two women fighter pilots to have earned the title of "Ace."
Perhaps no country in the world (in the modern era) has utilized women in combat more than Russia, the former Soviet Union. It wasn't because the Russians and the Soviet Union was so enlightened and applied total gender equality, it was more out of necessity than anything else. That is why the Soviet Union had more female doctors, engineers, etc., than other countries. It actually dates back to the First World War when Russia used some women in combat because of shortage of trained men! But it was in the Second World War that women were used widely by the Soviets, at first reluctantly, in all areas of combat. In order to allow women to serve in combat, the Soviet Generals had to get approval from Stalin, who was perhaps the biggest male chauvinist in the Soviet Union at the time! So it was no small matter to convince the dictator that women should be allowed to participate in combat on equal footing with men. Stalin may not have liked the idea, but with such tremendous losses of men in the outset of the war (wholesale armies surrendered or were destroyed in the first year of the war), Stalin was forced to give in and allow women who were trained to participate in combat.
The Soviet Air Force was the first to see significant participation of women in combat. Marina Raskova, who was an accomplished pilot (sometimes called Amelia Earhart of Russia) formed the first all female Fighter Regiment, the 586th. This was soon followed by the 587th and 588th Fighter Regiments. It didn't take long, however, for the all female units to break up and be integrated into regular units, so women fighter and bomber pilots flew along side of male pilots. In fact, one of the Soviet Union's top "aces," Alexei Solomatin, for a while had as "wingmen" (wingwomen?) two female pilots, and he spoke very highly of them. He said they were as good as any male fighter pilot and he trusted his life to their ability.
The top Soviet female fighter pilot of World War Two was a young, beautiful, Lydia Litvyak. She is credited with having shot down 16 German planes. 12 were solo kills, and 4 were shared with other pilots. She flew a total of 66 combat missions in the short two year period that she was a fighter pilot. She was the world's first female "ace!" To become an "ace" you have to have shot down five enemy aircraft, Lydia more than doubled that number. She was killed in air combat over Kursk during a battle in 1943. She was all of 22 years old! To put this in perspective, if she was flying for the United States, she would have been considered one of the top fighter pilots, male or female!
The other Soviet female fighter pilot who became an "ace," only the second female "ace" in the history of aviation, was Yekaterina Butnova with 11 German aircraft shot down. Yekaterina was also killed in battle in 1943. She was older than Lydia, she was all of 27 when she was killed!
These two young women would have been considered top fighter pilots in any country, regardless of their sex. They just happened to be female. To date, they are the only two women fighter pilots to have earned the title of "Ace."
Monday, September 15, 2014
America's Greatest Woman Warrior
The news media and Hollywood (I consider them almost the same!) have misnamed and misidentified so many things that are accepted by everyone today. Take the word or name spy for example. Hollywood has glamorized it to a point that we automatically conjure up visions of either handsome James Bond type male characters or sexy females as portrayed on various TV shows and movies, whenever the word spy is mentioned. No doubt there are and were handsome men and beautiful women who were/are spies. But, contrary to common perception, spying is not an occupation involving sipping expensive Champaign and hanging around world's popular playgrounds dressed in finery. Nor does spying involve constant violent action, expert knowledge of firearms and unarmed combat! Very simply put, a spy is someone who surreptitiously steals sensitive information from one source and passes it on to someone who usually pays for the information.
There is nothing sexy or colorful about stealing information and selling it to someone else! An intelligence officer does not directly get involved in obtaining that information. An intelligence officer recruits individuals who have access to information who essentially "spy" for them when they pass on the stolen information. Therefore, an intelligence officer, be it a CIA, FSB (former KGB), or any other, is not a spy or an "agent" as Hollywood and the news media like to call them. He or she is an intelligence officer who recruits and uses "agents" or "spies" to gather information! The one who does the stealing is the spy, not the intelligence officer! That is, in short, the real world definition of a spy. The Soviets had a policy of giving rank to their spies, probably to boost their ego. That is why Richard Sorge was a Colonel in the GRU.
I have, in a previous blog, made passing mention of Virginia Hall. She is often referred to by the media and others as America's greatest female spy. That is incorrect. She was a warrior, not a spy. She may have entered France secretly and operated under cover, under an assumed name, but she was not a spy. She was not sent to France to steal information, she was sent to France to gather intelligence, and mainly to organize and conduct guerrilla warfare against the Nazis, so she was a warrior!
Virginia Hall was born in 1906 of well to do parents, grew up in relative comfort. She attended Radcliff College (Harvard) and Barnard College (Columbia) and then took the Foreign Service exam which she did not pass. Her dream was to join the Foreign Service, to become an American diplomat. She decided she needed more experience after failing the exam, so she went to Europe and studied French and German. She then went to work as a clerk at an American Consulate in France. She worked at several different locations in Europe, preparing herself for a Foreign Service Career. Unfortunately, in a hunting accident, she lost her right leg below the knee. In those days, the Foreign Service did not accept anyone who had any kind of a physical handicap, so her dream of joining the Foreign Service were dashed. Just then the Second World War broke out. Virginia was in Vichy France at the time, but she managed to get away and go to England.
In England she joined the British Special Operations Executive (SOE), the British intelligence service. The SOE, after putting her through training, immediately sent her back to Vichy France secretly with an assumed identity, to contact and organize French Resistance. Virginia did such a good job that she became known to the German Gestapo as a "the most dangerous" and wanted "criminal." The Gestapo did not have a photograph of her, so they circulated a sketch, a wanted poster with a code name that they gave her. She was called "Artemis" by the Nazis. She was also known to the Nazis as "the limping lady."
Virginia was involved in many dangerous operations and did an outstanding job. She returned to England and was awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE). By that time America was in the war and the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was starting to operate in Europe. Virginia left the British SOE and joined the OSS. The OSS sent her back to France where she helped organize and train, and lead in battle, three battalions of French guerrillas. Her heroic acts in combat are too numerous to mention all in this blog. Suffice it to say that her activities during the war have more than enough material for several Hollywood movies! At the end of the war, she was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. She is the only woman in American history to have been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by the U.S. and the OBE by the UK!
Virginia Hall transitioned into the new CIA after the war and finished her career, retiring in the 1960s. She died in 1982. Shortly after her death, all of the information about her war time activities were declassified both in the U.S. and UK, so it was available to the public. Yet, aside from being mentioned in some articles, nothing was really written about her. Finally, in 2005, a biography was written by Judith Pearson called Wolves at the Door.
I am both amazed and surprised that nothing more has been done about her incredible career both with the SOE and the OSS. It would be nice, if for a change, instead of making those senseless TV shows and movies with sexy women executing karate kicks and fighting off hordes of bad guys in very improbable scenarios, a movie or a TV special was made about her. It would make for very interesting and informative show about an incredibly brave woman, Virginia Hall, America's Greatest Woman Warrior!
There is nothing sexy or colorful about stealing information and selling it to someone else! An intelligence officer does not directly get involved in obtaining that information. An intelligence officer recruits individuals who have access to information who essentially "spy" for them when they pass on the stolen information. Therefore, an intelligence officer, be it a CIA, FSB (former KGB), or any other, is not a spy or an "agent" as Hollywood and the news media like to call them. He or she is an intelligence officer who recruits and uses "agents" or "spies" to gather information! The one who does the stealing is the spy, not the intelligence officer! That is, in short, the real world definition of a spy. The Soviets had a policy of giving rank to their spies, probably to boost their ego. That is why Richard Sorge was a Colonel in the GRU.
I have, in a previous blog, made passing mention of Virginia Hall. She is often referred to by the media and others as America's greatest female spy. That is incorrect. She was a warrior, not a spy. She may have entered France secretly and operated under cover, under an assumed name, but she was not a spy. She was not sent to France to steal information, she was sent to France to gather intelligence, and mainly to organize and conduct guerrilla warfare against the Nazis, so she was a warrior!
Virginia Hall was born in 1906 of well to do parents, grew up in relative comfort. She attended Radcliff College (Harvard) and Barnard College (Columbia) and then took the Foreign Service exam which she did not pass. Her dream was to join the Foreign Service, to become an American diplomat. She decided she needed more experience after failing the exam, so she went to Europe and studied French and German. She then went to work as a clerk at an American Consulate in France. She worked at several different locations in Europe, preparing herself for a Foreign Service Career. Unfortunately, in a hunting accident, she lost her right leg below the knee. In those days, the Foreign Service did not accept anyone who had any kind of a physical handicap, so her dream of joining the Foreign Service were dashed. Just then the Second World War broke out. Virginia was in Vichy France at the time, but she managed to get away and go to England.
In England she joined the British Special Operations Executive (SOE), the British intelligence service. The SOE, after putting her through training, immediately sent her back to Vichy France secretly with an assumed identity, to contact and organize French Resistance. Virginia did such a good job that she became known to the German Gestapo as a "the most dangerous" and wanted "criminal." The Gestapo did not have a photograph of her, so they circulated a sketch, a wanted poster with a code name that they gave her. She was called "Artemis" by the Nazis. She was also known to the Nazis as "the limping lady."
Virginia was involved in many dangerous operations and did an outstanding job. She returned to England and was awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE). By that time America was in the war and the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was starting to operate in Europe. Virginia left the British SOE and joined the OSS. The OSS sent her back to France where she helped organize and train, and lead in battle, three battalions of French guerrillas. Her heroic acts in combat are too numerous to mention all in this blog. Suffice it to say that her activities during the war have more than enough material for several Hollywood movies! At the end of the war, she was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. She is the only woman in American history to have been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by the U.S. and the OBE by the UK!
Virginia Hall transitioned into the new CIA after the war and finished her career, retiring in the 1960s. She died in 1982. Shortly after her death, all of the information about her war time activities were declassified both in the U.S. and UK, so it was available to the public. Yet, aside from being mentioned in some articles, nothing was really written about her. Finally, in 2005, a biography was written by Judith Pearson called Wolves at the Door.
I am both amazed and surprised that nothing more has been done about her incredible career both with the SOE and the OSS. It would be nice, if for a change, instead of making those senseless TV shows and movies with sexy women executing karate kicks and fighting off hordes of bad guys in very improbable scenarios, a movie or a TV special was made about her. It would make for very interesting and informative show about an incredibly brave woman, Virginia Hall, America's Greatest Woman Warrior!
Friday, September 12, 2014
Richard Sorge, "Master Spy!"
Richard Sorge, the Soviet spy of World War Two era, is often referred to by the media as the "Master Spy." That title is somewhat misleading, I believe it is a misnomer to call someone a "Master Spy" when they got caught spying! After all, if he was such a "master" at his trade, he wouldn't have gotten caught! The media has a way of glorifying, blowing things up out of proportion. However, considering the information that he was able to acquire (although it was never used by Stalin!), he was one of the most successful Soviet spies of that era.....until he was caught.
Sorge was born of a German father and a Russian mother and grew up in Baku, in the Baltic region that was heavily populated with Germans. He served in the German army during World War One, was wounded and received an Iron Cross. He studied at the university where he began to develop leftist leanings, received a Ph.D. in Economics, and married his leftist professor's daughter. He travelled to the Soviet Union and became a true communist, joining the Communist Party. He divorced his German wife and married a Russian woman, and lived and worked there for several years. It was then that he was recruited by COMINTERN (Communist International, an intelligence organization) and began working for OGPU. He divorced his Russian wife and returned to Germany, with orders to infiltrate the new German Nazi Party. This he did without much problems and joined the Nazi Party, becoming a bona fide card carrying Nazi.
It is amazing that he was able to join the Nazis, despite his openly known communist affiliations! I guess the Nazis did not have much of a vetting system! He went to work as a journalist, reporting on economic conditions around the world, and was posted to Shanghai at first, but ultimately to Tokyo. There, he was ordered by the newly created GRU of which he was a member, to ingratiate himself with the German Embassy and organize a spy network, to gather intelligence on Germany as well as Japan. He joined forces with a well established Japanese journalist, Hotsumi Ozaki, who was a member of the Japanese Communist Party, and Hanako Ishii. His spy ring also included Max Clausen (a Soviet Red Army Offier) and his wife Anna, Branko Vokelic, a French journalist, and Miyagi Yotoku, another Japanese journalist. Sorge operated in Tokyo from 1933 until 1942 when he was arrested. He was well known in the international community in Tokyo, well liked by the German Embassy and had access to just about everything as a personal friend of the German Ambassador and the Military Attache. Hotsumi Ozaki, on the other hand, was a close personal friend of Fuminaro Konoe, the Japanese Prime Minister at the time and had access to all sorts of sensitive information.
Sorge managed to get information about Hitler's plan to attack Russia. He had gotten detailed information about the "Operation Barbarossa" from his Military Attache friend at the embassy. But Stalin scoffed at the idea of a German attack. He made a remark something to the effect that Sorge must be drinking and hanging around brothels too much! Stalin refused to believe that Germany would attack, after all, they had just signed a non-aggression pact! Of course he was wrong! In late 1941, Sorge reported to Moscow that Japan was planning an attack on Pearl Harbor. He gave the exact date as well as the method of attack. This information he got from Ozaki, and corroborated by the German Military Attache. However, once again Stalin refused to believe the information and simply waved it off, never passing it on to his allies! But some of Stalin's General's didn't take the information so lightly and managed to secretly move several army divisions from Siberia to Moscow area, providing much needed reinforcements and thereby saving Moscow! They felt that if Japan was going to attack America, then it could not afford to engage Russia at the same time, so the troops could be moved where they were desperately needed. They at least, remembered that Sorge had accurately reported Germany's attack on Russia! Later Stalin was accused of purposely withholding the intelligence on Pearl Harbor because he wanted to draw America into the war. But that was not the case at all. It was simply that Stalin, who like Hitler, thought he knew everything better than anyone else, didn't believe in Sorge's information!
The information about "Operation Barbarossa" and Pearl Harbor attack were possibly two of the most important pieces of intelligence that any spy during World War Two was able to acquire. Yet, it was ignored by Stalin! Sorge was not a shrinking violet, he lived a rather lavish and active life, drinking heavily and womanizing. He married his Japanese agent Hanako Ishii, but also managed to carry on an affair with Anna Clausen, Max Clausen's wife. In October of 1941, two months before Pearl Harbor, Sorge was arrested by Kempeitai, the Japanese Secret Police. Hanako Ishii was spared the death sentence, in fact, served only a few years of prison time. It was determined that she really played a minor role and was not privy to much of the information and activity. Sorge and Ozaki were executed, hanged in 1944, just before the war ended.
For 20 years the Soviet Union refused to admit that Richard Sorge was their spy, no doubt because there was still some information that he had passed on that was being used. However, in 1964 Sorge was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union medal (equivalent to our Medal of Honor) and his widow Hanako Ishii received his retirement benefits as well as his retroactive pay, going back some 25 years! Sorge held the rank of a Colonel in the GRU, so the amount was substantial and Hanako lived out the rest of her life a wealthy woman.
There were several movies (German, Japanese, and cooperative Japanese-French-German) made and several book written about Richard Sorge. There was even a Japanese Manga! In every movie or book he was described as a "Master Spy." I rather think it was the inept German counterintelligence that should be given credit for his longevity as a spy. At least the Japanese were able to capture him before he did any more damage!
Sorge was born of a German father and a Russian mother and grew up in Baku, in the Baltic region that was heavily populated with Germans. He served in the German army during World War One, was wounded and received an Iron Cross. He studied at the university where he began to develop leftist leanings, received a Ph.D. in Economics, and married his leftist professor's daughter. He travelled to the Soviet Union and became a true communist, joining the Communist Party. He divorced his German wife and married a Russian woman, and lived and worked there for several years. It was then that he was recruited by COMINTERN (Communist International, an intelligence organization) and began working for OGPU. He divorced his Russian wife and returned to Germany, with orders to infiltrate the new German Nazi Party. This he did without much problems and joined the Nazi Party, becoming a bona fide card carrying Nazi.
It is amazing that he was able to join the Nazis, despite his openly known communist affiliations! I guess the Nazis did not have much of a vetting system! He went to work as a journalist, reporting on economic conditions around the world, and was posted to Shanghai at first, but ultimately to Tokyo. There, he was ordered by the newly created GRU of which he was a member, to ingratiate himself with the German Embassy and organize a spy network, to gather intelligence on Germany as well as Japan. He joined forces with a well established Japanese journalist, Hotsumi Ozaki, who was a member of the Japanese Communist Party, and Hanako Ishii. His spy ring also included Max Clausen (a Soviet Red Army Offier) and his wife Anna, Branko Vokelic, a French journalist, and Miyagi Yotoku, another Japanese journalist. Sorge operated in Tokyo from 1933 until 1942 when he was arrested. He was well known in the international community in Tokyo, well liked by the German Embassy and had access to just about everything as a personal friend of the German Ambassador and the Military Attache. Hotsumi Ozaki, on the other hand, was a close personal friend of Fuminaro Konoe, the Japanese Prime Minister at the time and had access to all sorts of sensitive information.
Sorge managed to get information about Hitler's plan to attack Russia. He had gotten detailed information about the "Operation Barbarossa" from his Military Attache friend at the embassy. But Stalin scoffed at the idea of a German attack. He made a remark something to the effect that Sorge must be drinking and hanging around brothels too much! Stalin refused to believe that Germany would attack, after all, they had just signed a non-aggression pact! Of course he was wrong! In late 1941, Sorge reported to Moscow that Japan was planning an attack on Pearl Harbor. He gave the exact date as well as the method of attack. This information he got from Ozaki, and corroborated by the German Military Attache. However, once again Stalin refused to believe the information and simply waved it off, never passing it on to his allies! But some of Stalin's General's didn't take the information so lightly and managed to secretly move several army divisions from Siberia to Moscow area, providing much needed reinforcements and thereby saving Moscow! They felt that if Japan was going to attack America, then it could not afford to engage Russia at the same time, so the troops could be moved where they were desperately needed. They at least, remembered that Sorge had accurately reported Germany's attack on Russia! Later Stalin was accused of purposely withholding the intelligence on Pearl Harbor because he wanted to draw America into the war. But that was not the case at all. It was simply that Stalin, who like Hitler, thought he knew everything better than anyone else, didn't believe in Sorge's information!
The information about "Operation Barbarossa" and Pearl Harbor attack were possibly two of the most important pieces of intelligence that any spy during World War Two was able to acquire. Yet, it was ignored by Stalin! Sorge was not a shrinking violet, he lived a rather lavish and active life, drinking heavily and womanizing. He married his Japanese agent Hanako Ishii, but also managed to carry on an affair with Anna Clausen, Max Clausen's wife. In October of 1941, two months before Pearl Harbor, Sorge was arrested by Kempeitai, the Japanese Secret Police. Hanako Ishii was spared the death sentence, in fact, served only a few years of prison time. It was determined that she really played a minor role and was not privy to much of the information and activity. Sorge and Ozaki were executed, hanged in 1944, just before the war ended.
For 20 years the Soviet Union refused to admit that Richard Sorge was their spy, no doubt because there was still some information that he had passed on that was being used. However, in 1964 Sorge was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union medal (equivalent to our Medal of Honor) and his widow Hanako Ishii received his retirement benefits as well as his retroactive pay, going back some 25 years! Sorge held the rank of a Colonel in the GRU, so the amount was substantial and Hanako lived out the rest of her life a wealthy woman.
There were several movies (German, Japanese, and cooperative Japanese-French-German) made and several book written about Richard Sorge. There was even a Japanese Manga! In every movie or book he was described as a "Master Spy." I rather think it was the inept German counterintelligence that should be given credit for his longevity as a spy. At least the Japanese were able to capture him before he did any more damage!
Tuesday, September 9, 2014
The Japanese-American Internment During World War Two
I would like to continue on the subject of our "less than perfect system" and the misplaced power of the press/media. In the previous blogs I discussed the subject of the power of the press/media, how it can sway public opinion, the tremendous influence that it has in our society. This was demonstrated more than adequately before and during World War Two. One example of an innocent victim of the vicious press was the so-called "Tokyo Rose," Iva Toguri, who was imprisoned and her life ruined, because of the unfair and inaccurate (and outright lies) press coverage. In the "less than perfect system" category, the Hawaiian sumo-tori Jesse aka Takamiyama was an example, someone who was stripped of U.S. citizenship because of our inflexible and outdated nationality laws.
Today, just about every American is aware of gross injustice that was carried out against the Japanese-Americans during World War Two when about 120,000 from the West Coast were essentially incarcerated in "internment" and "detention" camps in hinterlands! But what many do not know is what went on behind the scenes before this infamous act, the Executive Order 9066 was carried out.
Anti-Japanese and anti-Asian sentiment was growing increasingly in America years prior to Pearl Harbor. In 1924 an Immigration Act was passed that was called the Asian Exclusion Act! It was to stop Asian immigration to America. Asians who were not U.S. citizens, in other words, not born in America, were excluded from all sorts of things, not just voting rights! Property ownership was not allowed, holding any kind office was forbidden, and like African-Americans, access to restaurants and other public places were denied. As early as 1930, the Office of Naval Intelligence began watching and compiling a list of potential "dangerous Asians." Not to be left out, the FBI got into the act in 1939, creating a Custodial Detention Index, a list of Asians (mostly Japanese) that FBI would arrest and put in detention centers if needed!
In early 1941, prior to Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt commissioned Charles Munson to conduct a study of dangers involving Japanese population in America. After an exhaustive study, Munson reported to Roosevelt that the Japanese population in America was "remarkably and extraordinarily loyal to America." His report was filed away. A month after Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt once again commissioned another person, Kenneth Ringle, to conduct a same type of study as Munson. Ringle reported almost exactly the same thing. Japanese-Americans were exceptionally loyal to America and there was nothing to fear. Yet, mysteriously, the Ringle report disappeared also, only to resurface many years later! In the meantime, the press was acting like a lynch mob. Most major press coverage insisted that a "fifth column" existed, and ambitious reporters made up stories about nefarious Japanese spies! The press, along with some politicians and Army Generals were responsible for the treatment of Japanese-Americans that followed.
Army Lieutenant General John DeWitt was put in charge of removing the Japanese population from the West Coast. The previous Munson and Ringle reports were completely ignored and the government only paid heed to the press's hysterical outcry to do something about the Japanese in America. De Witt testified before Congress and said "a Jap is a Jap and I don't like or trust any of them!" This coming from a man put in charge of taking care of Japanese situation in the West Coast! The newspapers and radio announcers throughout the country continued to spew anti-Japanese verbiage and essentially pour gasoline on fire. So, Roosevelt enacted the Executive Order 9066 in February of 1942, removing all people of Japanese descent from the West Coast!
Now, it may interest you to know that this extended to Koreans and Taiwanese, who were considered Japanese because both Korea and Taiwan were a colony of Japanese Empire! Fortunately, there were very few Korean or Taiwanese in the West Coast at the time, and those who were there passed themselves off as Chinese! Also, a person was considered Japanese if he or she was 1/16th Japanese! This means if your great-great grandfather or grandmother was Japanese, you were included in the internment order.
The earlier Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) List and the FBI's Custodial Detention Index was compiled with the help of informants. You can guess how that went! Someone who had a grudge against someone else could point a finger at a person who was not Japanese and claim that they were 1/8th or 1/16th Japanese and cause great problems! My grandchildren are 1/4 Asian, yet they do not look at all like Asians! And did you know that the Hollywood movie star Richard Gere's grandmother is Japanese? Both the ONI and FBI had no way of disproving these accusations, so many people suffered from vindictive accusations. It was a dangerous time to be Asian, or part Asian!
The media fueled the anti-Japanese sentiment, acting like a lynch mob, and politicians simply followed the media's demands. After all, politicians and the media are hand in glove in a sense, since both depend on each other to survive.
After repeated lobbying by Japanese-American groups, President Jimmy Carter agreed to look into the injustice done to the Japanese-Americans, but nothing was done. It took Ronald Reagan to finally do something in 1988, and he made a formal apology to Japanese-Americans and authorized reparations in the amount of $20,000 to each survivor of the internment camps. Interestingly, only a fraction of the people who were interned accepted the monetary offer. There are still over 80,000 survivors of the internment camps! Amazingly, the Charles Munson and Kenneth Ringle reports finally surfaced, in 2007! Its a mystery where they've been all these years, if only they could talk!
Now, aren't you glad we live in better times, or do we?
Today, just about every American is aware of gross injustice that was carried out against the Japanese-Americans during World War Two when about 120,000 from the West Coast were essentially incarcerated in "internment" and "detention" camps in hinterlands! But what many do not know is what went on behind the scenes before this infamous act, the Executive Order 9066 was carried out.
Anti-Japanese and anti-Asian sentiment was growing increasingly in America years prior to Pearl Harbor. In 1924 an Immigration Act was passed that was called the Asian Exclusion Act! It was to stop Asian immigration to America. Asians who were not U.S. citizens, in other words, not born in America, were excluded from all sorts of things, not just voting rights! Property ownership was not allowed, holding any kind office was forbidden, and like African-Americans, access to restaurants and other public places were denied. As early as 1930, the Office of Naval Intelligence began watching and compiling a list of potential "dangerous Asians." Not to be left out, the FBI got into the act in 1939, creating a Custodial Detention Index, a list of Asians (mostly Japanese) that FBI would arrest and put in detention centers if needed!
In early 1941, prior to Pearl Harbor, President Roosevelt commissioned Charles Munson to conduct a study of dangers involving Japanese population in America. After an exhaustive study, Munson reported to Roosevelt that the Japanese population in America was "remarkably and extraordinarily loyal to America." His report was filed away. A month after Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt once again commissioned another person, Kenneth Ringle, to conduct a same type of study as Munson. Ringle reported almost exactly the same thing. Japanese-Americans were exceptionally loyal to America and there was nothing to fear. Yet, mysteriously, the Ringle report disappeared also, only to resurface many years later! In the meantime, the press was acting like a lynch mob. Most major press coverage insisted that a "fifth column" existed, and ambitious reporters made up stories about nefarious Japanese spies! The press, along with some politicians and Army Generals were responsible for the treatment of Japanese-Americans that followed.
Army Lieutenant General John DeWitt was put in charge of removing the Japanese population from the West Coast. The previous Munson and Ringle reports were completely ignored and the government only paid heed to the press's hysterical outcry to do something about the Japanese in America. De Witt testified before Congress and said "a Jap is a Jap and I don't like or trust any of them!" This coming from a man put in charge of taking care of Japanese situation in the West Coast! The newspapers and radio announcers throughout the country continued to spew anti-Japanese verbiage and essentially pour gasoline on fire. So, Roosevelt enacted the Executive Order 9066 in February of 1942, removing all people of Japanese descent from the West Coast!
Now, it may interest you to know that this extended to Koreans and Taiwanese, who were considered Japanese because both Korea and Taiwan were a colony of Japanese Empire! Fortunately, there were very few Korean or Taiwanese in the West Coast at the time, and those who were there passed themselves off as Chinese! Also, a person was considered Japanese if he or she was 1/16th Japanese! This means if your great-great grandfather or grandmother was Japanese, you were included in the internment order.
The earlier Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) List and the FBI's Custodial Detention Index was compiled with the help of informants. You can guess how that went! Someone who had a grudge against someone else could point a finger at a person who was not Japanese and claim that they were 1/8th or 1/16th Japanese and cause great problems! My grandchildren are 1/4 Asian, yet they do not look at all like Asians! And did you know that the Hollywood movie star Richard Gere's grandmother is Japanese? Both the ONI and FBI had no way of disproving these accusations, so many people suffered from vindictive accusations. It was a dangerous time to be Asian, or part Asian!
The media fueled the anti-Japanese sentiment, acting like a lynch mob, and politicians simply followed the media's demands. After all, politicians and the media are hand in glove in a sense, since both depend on each other to survive.
After repeated lobbying by Japanese-American groups, President Jimmy Carter agreed to look into the injustice done to the Japanese-Americans, but nothing was done. It took Ronald Reagan to finally do something in 1988, and he made a formal apology to Japanese-Americans and authorized reparations in the amount of $20,000 to each survivor of the internment camps. Interestingly, only a fraction of the people who were interned accepted the monetary offer. There are still over 80,000 survivors of the internment camps! Amazingly, the Charles Munson and Kenneth Ringle reports finally surfaced, in 2007! Its a mystery where they've been all these years, if only they could talk!
Now, aren't you glad we live in better times, or do we?
Friday, September 5, 2014
Our Less Than Perfect System
Our system of government and laws is perhaps one of the best, if not the best in the world. However, having been created by humans, and being implemented by humans who are less than perfect, it is far from perfect. Our nationality laws in particular, are cumbersome and at times unfathomable, not in tune with times. At the same time, they appear grossly unfair to some, and unusually lenient for others.
Take for example the current hot issue of illegal aliens. I know, it is not PC to use that term, they are now "undocumented migrants!" It seems that in some cases, the "undocumented" have more rights than those who are legally residing within our borders. It seems that the minute they step on American soil, they are granted all of the rights and protection under the law. Yet, they did not enter this country "legally," they were not invited, they are not even tourists visiting temporarily. In no country in the world such protection and privileges are extended to someone who enters illegally! But this is the United States of America, the land of the free, a nation of immigrants! So, although we are a nation of laws, we seem to disregard laws in this case, the very laws by which we live!
The latest push by some of our law makers to "legalize" the "undocumented," the so called path to citizenship, is somewhat baffling. I have no objections to someone being granted U.S. citizenship after they serve 3 years in the U.S.military, 2 years if served in combat, if somehow the "undocumented" individual manages to enlist. That particular law has been in the books for years, since World War Two. In fact, it was created to attract volunteers for service during World War Two. But to automatically grant citizenship to someone on some technicality despite their illegal entry, is incomprehensible to me. It seems in this case, the law breakers are rewarded! On the other hand, our laws can at times be incredibly inflexible and archaic and cruel to our own!
Not many Americans may know of or remember the first Hawaiian who successfully became a sumo wrestler in Japan. His name is Jesse James Wailani Kuhaulau and he was a sumo wrestler in Japan under the name of Takamiyama Daigoro. Jesse came to Japan in 1963, shortly after he graduated from high school in Hawaii. He was never a great wrestler, but he was good enough to make it to the top division and earn a decent income. Jesse's engaging personality made him extremely popular in Japan. He was constantly appearing in TV commercials, and Japanese, both young and old were very fond of him. However, his career had to come to an end sometime. Usually the sumo-tori's (sumo wrestler's) career lasts but about a decade or so, sort of like an NFL player's. Carrying all that excess weight is not good for health and most retire early. Jesse had been wrestling for 17 years when he started to think about retirement.
The only thing that he could do which would earn him a good income was to remain in sumo as a "stable" master, i.e., trainer of sumo-tori. Japanese law states that in order to become a "stable"(sumo club) master or trainer, you had to be a Japanese citizen. This law dates back some five centuries to sumo's beginning. Sumo is not just a sport, it is an ancient Japanese tradition, very part of the Japanese culture and history. So it made sense, since a sumo stable master is considered a very prestigious position.
So, Jesse came to the U.S. Embassy and consulted with embassy officials, hoping to get some help. He said that he wished to become a naturalized Japanese citizen but did not want to give up his U.S. citizenship. He said that he had no way of making a living to support his family outside of sumo. He had no training or skills in any other area, sumo was his whole life. Unfortunately, he was told that according to our laws, anyone voluntarily accepting another country's citizenship would lose his U.S. citizenship, regardless of circumstances. The law was very inflexible in this area. Jesse argued that it was strictly for economic reasons, he had to make a living. It was not that he was being disloyal to America. America was his country, he insisted, but to no avail. Jesse left the embassy in tears. It was truly disheartening to see such a big, physically powerful man walking out of the embassy with tears streaming down his cheeks.
Jesse became a naturalized Japanese citizen in 1980 and his U.S. citizenship was revoked almost immediately. In order for him to visit his parents and his large family and friends in Hawaii from that point on, he had to secure a tourist visa from the U.S. Embassy! That seemed so grossly unfair! Our laws can be very strange. Our government strips someone like Jesse of his citizenship, yet is considering granting blanket citizenship to those who entered this country illegally! Go figure!
Take for example the current hot issue of illegal aliens. I know, it is not PC to use that term, they are now "undocumented migrants!" It seems that in some cases, the "undocumented" have more rights than those who are legally residing within our borders. It seems that the minute they step on American soil, they are granted all of the rights and protection under the law. Yet, they did not enter this country "legally," they were not invited, they are not even tourists visiting temporarily. In no country in the world such protection and privileges are extended to someone who enters illegally! But this is the United States of America, the land of the free, a nation of immigrants! So, although we are a nation of laws, we seem to disregard laws in this case, the very laws by which we live!
The latest push by some of our law makers to "legalize" the "undocumented," the so called path to citizenship, is somewhat baffling. I have no objections to someone being granted U.S. citizenship after they serve 3 years in the U.S.military, 2 years if served in combat, if somehow the "undocumented" individual manages to enlist. That particular law has been in the books for years, since World War Two. In fact, it was created to attract volunteers for service during World War Two. But to automatically grant citizenship to someone on some technicality despite their illegal entry, is incomprehensible to me. It seems in this case, the law breakers are rewarded! On the other hand, our laws can at times be incredibly inflexible and archaic and cruel to our own!
Not many Americans may know of or remember the first Hawaiian who successfully became a sumo wrestler in Japan. His name is Jesse James Wailani Kuhaulau and he was a sumo wrestler in Japan under the name of Takamiyama Daigoro. Jesse came to Japan in 1963, shortly after he graduated from high school in Hawaii. He was never a great wrestler, but he was good enough to make it to the top division and earn a decent income. Jesse's engaging personality made him extremely popular in Japan. He was constantly appearing in TV commercials, and Japanese, both young and old were very fond of him. However, his career had to come to an end sometime. Usually the sumo-tori's (sumo wrestler's) career lasts but about a decade or so, sort of like an NFL player's. Carrying all that excess weight is not good for health and most retire early. Jesse had been wrestling for 17 years when he started to think about retirement.
The only thing that he could do which would earn him a good income was to remain in sumo as a "stable" master, i.e., trainer of sumo-tori. Japanese law states that in order to become a "stable"(sumo club) master or trainer, you had to be a Japanese citizen. This law dates back some five centuries to sumo's beginning. Sumo is not just a sport, it is an ancient Japanese tradition, very part of the Japanese culture and history. So it made sense, since a sumo stable master is considered a very prestigious position.
So, Jesse came to the U.S. Embassy and consulted with embassy officials, hoping to get some help. He said that he wished to become a naturalized Japanese citizen but did not want to give up his U.S. citizenship. He said that he had no way of making a living to support his family outside of sumo. He had no training or skills in any other area, sumo was his whole life. Unfortunately, he was told that according to our laws, anyone voluntarily accepting another country's citizenship would lose his U.S. citizenship, regardless of circumstances. The law was very inflexible in this area. Jesse argued that it was strictly for economic reasons, he had to make a living. It was not that he was being disloyal to America. America was his country, he insisted, but to no avail. Jesse left the embassy in tears. It was truly disheartening to see such a big, physically powerful man walking out of the embassy with tears streaming down his cheeks.
Jesse became a naturalized Japanese citizen in 1980 and his U.S. citizenship was revoked almost immediately. In order for him to visit his parents and his large family and friends in Hawaii from that point on, he had to secure a tourist visa from the U.S. Embassy! That seemed so grossly unfair! Our laws can be very strange. Our government strips someone like Jesse of his citizenship, yet is considering granting blanket citizenship to those who entered this country illegally! Go figure!
Tuesday, September 2, 2014
A Rose that Never Was!
Ours is a society that is driven by the almighty dollar and the media! Yes, the media, the newspapers, radio, and especially television. The media has so much power that it can transform a mediocre first term Senator from the Midwest into a successful presidential candidate! It can make heroes out of villains and villains out of innocent people!
Those of us who are of Vietnam generation well remember the antics of Jane Fonda. Hanoi Jane would have been imprisoned, at the very least censured by Hollywood and would have never made another movie after her anti-American (not anti-war!) activities! Any other person, with less fame and media connections would have been literally crucified for her activities! The worst was the posing for a photo wearing North Vietnamese helmet and manning an anti-aircraft gun during her visit to Hanoi, while U.S. POWs were suffering in "Hanoi Hilton" and other POW camps near by! Yet, the press made her out to be some sort of a anti-war folk hero! Granted, there were those in the media who were appalled by her antics and behavior, but they were silenced by the more powerful, the majority of our liberal press! Small wonder Obama thought of presenting Jane with a Medal of Freedom not too long ago! Fortunately, there must have been at least one person in Obama's advisory group who remembered Hanoi Jane, someone who had a sense of history that went beyond anything prior to Y2K! Somehow the whole plan to award her with a Medal of Freedom sort of fizzled. Nevertheless, Jane never had to pay for her bad behavior, in fact, she has prospered since! I wish I could collect a fraction of royalties that she made on her exercise video! Contrast that with what happened to another woman, one not so lucky to have strong connections with the media!
Iva Toguri was a typical California girl, a Japanese-American. She had graduated from UCLA with a Bachelor of Science degree and was planning to attend medical school to become a doctor. Her mother was in poor health, so when her sister who was in Japan died, Iva was sent to Japan to represent the American side of the family. At the time, Iva could only speak halting Japanese, she could not read or write in Japanese!
When she applied for a passport, she was told that it would take at least a month, and she needed to travel soon, so she opted to travel with a Letter of Identity issued by the State Department. She was told that she would have no problem using that letter to travel to and from Japan. This was just before things went sour and the war broke out.
Iva traveled to Japan, attended her aunt's funeral, but when she tried to board the ship going back home, she was told that the Letter of Identity was no good and she had to get a passport. So she went to the U.S. Embassy in Tokyo and applied for a passport. She was told it would take at least a month, perhaps longer. While she waited, the war broke out, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.
The Japanese government automatically conferred Japanese citizenship on all Japanese-Americans. The Kempeitai (secret police) told her that she was to renounce her U.S. citizenship and accept her Japanese nationality. She refused! She was harassed and even jailed briefly, but she still refused to give up her U.S. citizenship. The U.S. Embassy closed, and there was no way for her to get a passport. She had to survive, so she looked for a job through English language paper. She finally located a job opening at a radio station and went for an interview. There she was interviewed by an Australian Army Major Charles Hughes Cousens and a U.S. Army Captain Wallace Ivce. The two were early POWs captured and then turned into radio broadcasters in Tokyo. They hired Iva and assured her that she would not be doing anything against her country. They wrote the scripts that she was to read over radio broadcasts. So Iva took the job that she desperately needed to survive.
There were several English speaking girls that worked with Iva. Some were Japanese as well as other nationalities. In all, there were at least a dozen young women who worked at the station and read the broadcasts that were written by Cousens and or Ivce. The G.I.s who heard these broadcasts simply nick-named the women "Tokyo Rose." They had no idea whether it was one woman or several that did the broadcasts.
When the war ended the U.S. forces rounded up everyone and interrogated them. Everyone was declared innocent of wrong doing. Cousens went back to Australia and became a successful TV announcer. Wallace Ivce was promoted to Major and sent back to the states. All the girls were turned loose, Iva included. There was no U.S. Embassy yet, so she could not get a passport. When the embassy finally opened and she went to apply for a passport, some reporter got wind of it and word reached Walter Winchell, that paragon of virtue and righteousness, who decided to use this as a stepping stone to further increase his fame. Winchell, who was a good friend of J. Edgar Hoover, informed his FBI friend and at the same time started broadcasting how a traitor, a former "Tokyo Rose" was trying to get back to America! Naturally, with that kind of news coverage, and with FBI hot to pursue "war criminals," Iva did not stand a chance. She was brought back to the states, tried in essentially a kangaroo court, and convicted of traitorous acts and sentenced to 10 years in prison. The key witness to this sham trial was bribed by Winchell! On July 20, 2009, the PBS broadcast the show "History Detectives" in which the show revealed that the key witness had lied, bribed by Winchell, and other witnesses were intimidated by FBI to give "favorable" testimony for prosecution!
Because Iva Toguri was a nobody, just a young girl from California who was of Japanese descent, a very unpopular ethnicity at the time, she didn't stand a chance. Not against the likes of Walter Winchell and J. Edgar Hoover, both psychotic personalities when it came to their ambitions.
Iva served 5 years of her 10 year sentence and was released. She lived quietly, running a flower shop, married to her Filipino husband D'Aquino. They had met in Tokyo during the war when both were stuck there. There were many who thought that a great injustice had been done and had constantly lobbied to try to correct history, to correct the wrong. In 1975 President Gerald Ford gave a full pardon to Iva Toguri D'Aquino. So at least, Iva could go to her death knowing that she was pardoned, that she was a loyal U.S. citizen that she said she was. The pardon was long time coming, but at least Ford (who was accused of incompetence and many other things by the media!) did the right thing by Iva, and by history. Ford did not attempt to give the Medal of Freedom to Hanoi Jane!
Those of us who are of Vietnam generation well remember the antics of Jane Fonda. Hanoi Jane would have been imprisoned, at the very least censured by Hollywood and would have never made another movie after her anti-American (not anti-war!) activities! Any other person, with less fame and media connections would have been literally crucified for her activities! The worst was the posing for a photo wearing North Vietnamese helmet and manning an anti-aircraft gun during her visit to Hanoi, while U.S. POWs were suffering in "Hanoi Hilton" and other POW camps near by! Yet, the press made her out to be some sort of a anti-war folk hero! Granted, there were those in the media who were appalled by her antics and behavior, but they were silenced by the more powerful, the majority of our liberal press! Small wonder Obama thought of presenting Jane with a Medal of Freedom not too long ago! Fortunately, there must have been at least one person in Obama's advisory group who remembered Hanoi Jane, someone who had a sense of history that went beyond anything prior to Y2K! Somehow the whole plan to award her with a Medal of Freedom sort of fizzled. Nevertheless, Jane never had to pay for her bad behavior, in fact, she has prospered since! I wish I could collect a fraction of royalties that she made on her exercise video! Contrast that with what happened to another woman, one not so lucky to have strong connections with the media!
Iva Toguri was a typical California girl, a Japanese-American. She had graduated from UCLA with a Bachelor of Science degree and was planning to attend medical school to become a doctor. Her mother was in poor health, so when her sister who was in Japan died, Iva was sent to Japan to represent the American side of the family. At the time, Iva could only speak halting Japanese, she could not read or write in Japanese!
When she applied for a passport, she was told that it would take at least a month, and she needed to travel soon, so she opted to travel with a Letter of Identity issued by the State Department. She was told that she would have no problem using that letter to travel to and from Japan. This was just before things went sour and the war broke out.
Iva traveled to Japan, attended her aunt's funeral, but when she tried to board the ship going back home, she was told that the Letter of Identity was no good and she had to get a passport. So she went to the U.S. Embassy in Tokyo and applied for a passport. She was told it would take at least a month, perhaps longer. While she waited, the war broke out, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor.
The Japanese government automatically conferred Japanese citizenship on all Japanese-Americans. The Kempeitai (secret police) told her that she was to renounce her U.S. citizenship and accept her Japanese nationality. She refused! She was harassed and even jailed briefly, but she still refused to give up her U.S. citizenship. The U.S. Embassy closed, and there was no way for her to get a passport. She had to survive, so she looked for a job through English language paper. She finally located a job opening at a radio station and went for an interview. There she was interviewed by an Australian Army Major Charles Hughes Cousens and a U.S. Army Captain Wallace Ivce. The two were early POWs captured and then turned into radio broadcasters in Tokyo. They hired Iva and assured her that she would not be doing anything against her country. They wrote the scripts that she was to read over radio broadcasts. So Iva took the job that she desperately needed to survive.
There were several English speaking girls that worked with Iva. Some were Japanese as well as other nationalities. In all, there were at least a dozen young women who worked at the station and read the broadcasts that were written by Cousens and or Ivce. The G.I.s who heard these broadcasts simply nick-named the women "Tokyo Rose." They had no idea whether it was one woman or several that did the broadcasts.
When the war ended the U.S. forces rounded up everyone and interrogated them. Everyone was declared innocent of wrong doing. Cousens went back to Australia and became a successful TV announcer. Wallace Ivce was promoted to Major and sent back to the states. All the girls were turned loose, Iva included. There was no U.S. Embassy yet, so she could not get a passport. When the embassy finally opened and she went to apply for a passport, some reporter got wind of it and word reached Walter Winchell, that paragon of virtue and righteousness, who decided to use this as a stepping stone to further increase his fame. Winchell, who was a good friend of J. Edgar Hoover, informed his FBI friend and at the same time started broadcasting how a traitor, a former "Tokyo Rose" was trying to get back to America! Naturally, with that kind of news coverage, and with FBI hot to pursue "war criminals," Iva did not stand a chance. She was brought back to the states, tried in essentially a kangaroo court, and convicted of traitorous acts and sentenced to 10 years in prison. The key witness to this sham trial was bribed by Winchell! On July 20, 2009, the PBS broadcast the show "History Detectives" in which the show revealed that the key witness had lied, bribed by Winchell, and other witnesses were intimidated by FBI to give "favorable" testimony for prosecution!
Because Iva Toguri was a nobody, just a young girl from California who was of Japanese descent, a very unpopular ethnicity at the time, she didn't stand a chance. Not against the likes of Walter Winchell and J. Edgar Hoover, both psychotic personalities when it came to their ambitions.
Iva served 5 years of her 10 year sentence and was released. She lived quietly, running a flower shop, married to her Filipino husband D'Aquino. They had met in Tokyo during the war when both were stuck there. There were many who thought that a great injustice had been done and had constantly lobbied to try to correct history, to correct the wrong. In 1975 President Gerald Ford gave a full pardon to Iva Toguri D'Aquino. So at least, Iva could go to her death knowing that she was pardoned, that she was a loyal U.S. citizen that she said she was. The pardon was long time coming, but at least Ford (who was accused of incompetence and many other things by the media!) did the right thing by Iva, and by history. Ford did not attempt to give the Medal of Freedom to Hanoi Jane!
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