Most uhl mao zeh were, at the very least bi-lingual while many were multi-lingual. Quite a large number had received university education, many had graduate degrees. Generally speaking, those uhl mao zeh that wanted to study engineering usually went to Germany. For fine art and humanities, usually France was the choice, while England was reserved for those who generally wanted to study at Oxford or Cambridge for prestige more than anything else. There were, of course, other countries where uhl mao zeh went to study. A few chose Japan and China, while others (a small number) went to America. But Europe appeared to be the biggest attraction for studying abroad. Interestingly, even those who studied in non-English speaking countries learned English. Most were very well prepared by the better "gymnasiums" (Russian high schools) in Harbin where it was mandatory to study at least one foreign language. The most popular foreign language was English, followed by French and German. It was therefore, not unusual for someone who graduated from one of the better high schools in Harbin to already be fairly fluent in English as well as French or German. Some parents sent their children to English or international ("colleges") schools in Shanghai where English was the language. So, all in all, the uhl mao zeh received a very good education, those who could afford it.
A typical young uhl mao zeh in Harbin in the 1930s and early 40s was a university educated who spoke at least three languages - Russian, English or French or German (or all three!), and Korean. Many also spoke Chinese and added Japanese to their list of languages. With such linguistic talent and ability, they were able to work in fairly good jobs even if they did not have a professional degree. Others, of course, were doctors, engineers, lawyers, etc., and could practice their profession, although as stateless people it was not always possible. Still, they were able to get better than average jobs because they were better than average educated and were multi-lingual.
Harbin between 1920 and 1945 was a unique place which created an unusual environment found no where else in the world at that time or since. The uhl mao zeh belonged to that unusual world, in fact, they were responsible for creating that world in large part! The circumstances and the environment that existed in Harbin was not only unique but very unusual and was never to be repeated again. It is not surprising that old timers, those uhl mao zeh who lived through that period remember it so fondly. For despite the fact that they were stateless and belonged to no country, their status was special and they were at the top of the food chain - kind of strange, considering that they had no political clout what so ever! But once they left that world, they were no longer viewed by others as being unique or special. Outside of Harbin, they were just stateless, regardless of how many languages they knew and what university they attended. The world had changed dramatically and they were just stateless and of no importance to anyone.
Friday, May 30, 2014
The "Uhl Mao Zeh" in Harbin
I have already covered the subject of Russian Koreans in a number of blogs, including the two very first blogs in this BlogSpot. However, since The Manchurian Tales is about Russian Koreans, the so-called uhl mao zeh in particular, I felt that additional blogs on the subject would not be out of place.
As I have stated previously, the overall, large group of Russian Koreans, i.e., Russians of Korean ethnic extraction, generally refer to themselves nowadays as koryo saram, which means Koryo person, a rather quaint name, since Koryo Dynasty existed hundreds of years ago! However, a much smaller group of Russian Koreans that used to live in Harbin, Manchuria prior to Soviet take over after World War Two called themselves and were known as uhl mao zeh, a Korean pronunciation of Chinese name er mao tsu, which means literally, a second foreigner! There isn't an accurate figure on the number of uhl mao zeh that existed in Harbin prior to World War Two. There is no consensus, the number ranges anywhere from 5,000 to 25,000. That is a very small number, when you consider that the total number of Russian Koreans today, the koryo saram, is somewhere in the neighborhood of half a million souls. The main difference between the uhl mao zeh in Harbin and the rest of the Russian Korean community was their socio economic standing. That is the main reason that those who were later to be known as uhl mao zeh fled communist Russia while the majority remained.
As it became clear that the Tsarists were losing the battle against the Bolsheviks, news began to reach the Russian Far East (Primorsky Krai or Primorye) where the Russian Korean population was concentrated, that the Bolsheviks were conducting purges, killing off or imprisoning all those who were the so-called former ruling class or financially well off. This meant in general those that not only had money but were better educated. Of course anyone who was affiliated with the Tsarist government was immediately killed or imprisoned. Those Russian Koreans who held positions in Tsarist government or were successful professionals and businessmen knew that they had to get out. The closest place was Manchuria, so that is where they headed. So, essentially the Russian Koreans who ended up in Harbin and called themselves uhl mao zeh were of higher socio economic level than those that remained in Russia. That is not to say that all uhl mao zeh were of higher socio economic level than those who remained in Russia. There were many of higher standing who foolishly remained in Russia, and there were many of humble background who escaped to Manchuria. But generally speaking, those who ended up in Harbin were the ones who could be considered to have had a "privileged" life in old Russia.
Although many suffered hardships while in Manchuria, many others were successful in pursuing their careers and establish themselves in Harbin. Those who had money sent their young abroad to be educated, mostly Europe. So, the second generation of uhl mao zeh, those that grew up in Harbin, became very unique in that they were well educated, very cosmopolitan, given to speaking several languages and trained as doctors, engineers, lawyers and other professions. They grew up in privileged surroundings and were more or less at the top of the food chain in Harbin. Contrast that with the situation faced by their less fortunate relatives who remained in Russia. By 1930s Stalin ordered that all ethnic Koreans be deported to Soviet Central Asia, thousands of miles away into god forsaken territory. Their only chance for higher education was if they were academically gifted, then they could possibly earn a scholarship to attend one of the Soviet state universities. A far cry from top European and American universities that some of the uhl mao zeh attended! So, for about a quarter of a century, from 1920 until 1945, the uhl mao zeh in Harbin found themselves in a unique situation where they may have been stateless and ruled by Chinese in the 20s and Japanese in the 30s and 40s, but they were in many cases better educated and to some extend envied by their rulers.
In some ways, the uhl mao zeh lived in an artificial world, as they soon found out when the Soviets occupied Manchuria and began deporting those who remained to Soviet Central Asia. That is, those that they did not imprison or kill outright. But while that world lasted, before the Soviet occupation, they lived in a unique world. They lived in a world where they never experienced racial discrimination. After all, they were in Asia and at the same time, at the top of the food chain, as mentioned earlier. They may not have been liked by other ethnic groups, but they were not discriminated against. The Japanese mistrusted the uhl mao zeh because they were too "foreign" or "western" yet they were racially and ethnically Asian! But at the same time, the Japanese envied the uhl mao zeh, their ability to move about with ease in western society, their ability to speak Russian and other languages. The Russians accepted them because despite the fact that they were Asian, they were culturally Russian, in many cases speaking better Russian than some of the less educated Russians in Harbin. So, at least for about a quarter of a century, they were able to enjoy the best of both worlds. But that was in Harbin. It would not have been the same elsewhere. Those who traveled abroad or even went to places like Shanghai or Hong Kong quickly discovered that racial discrimination was alive and well. They were shocked to see signs in theaters and other public places patronized by Europeans that said "No dogs or Chinese Allowed!" Such things were unthinkable in Harbin. Harbin was their haven, a place where they belonged even if they were stateless.
Those uhl mao zeh who managed to get away from Manchuria always remembered Harbin as a sort of a haven for them, where they never felt racial discrimination or were mistreated in anyway because of their ethnicity or racial background. Some even said that Russians were not racists, which of course, is not true. Russians could be very racist as they have shown throughout history, including the deportation of Russian Koreans! What these old Harbinites are forgetting or failing to realize is that because of their education and financial position, they were treated better. Had they been uneducated and poor, they would have felt the full brunt of racial discrimination, even in their beloved Harbin.
As I have stated previously, the overall, large group of Russian Koreans, i.e., Russians of Korean ethnic extraction, generally refer to themselves nowadays as koryo saram, which means Koryo person, a rather quaint name, since Koryo Dynasty existed hundreds of years ago! However, a much smaller group of Russian Koreans that used to live in Harbin, Manchuria prior to Soviet take over after World War Two called themselves and were known as uhl mao zeh, a Korean pronunciation of Chinese name er mao tsu, which means literally, a second foreigner! There isn't an accurate figure on the number of uhl mao zeh that existed in Harbin prior to World War Two. There is no consensus, the number ranges anywhere from 5,000 to 25,000. That is a very small number, when you consider that the total number of Russian Koreans today, the koryo saram, is somewhere in the neighborhood of half a million souls. The main difference between the uhl mao zeh in Harbin and the rest of the Russian Korean community was their socio economic standing. That is the main reason that those who were later to be known as uhl mao zeh fled communist Russia while the majority remained.
As it became clear that the Tsarists were losing the battle against the Bolsheviks, news began to reach the Russian Far East (Primorsky Krai or Primorye) where the Russian Korean population was concentrated, that the Bolsheviks were conducting purges, killing off or imprisoning all those who were the so-called former ruling class or financially well off. This meant in general those that not only had money but were better educated. Of course anyone who was affiliated with the Tsarist government was immediately killed or imprisoned. Those Russian Koreans who held positions in Tsarist government or were successful professionals and businessmen knew that they had to get out. The closest place was Manchuria, so that is where they headed. So, essentially the Russian Koreans who ended up in Harbin and called themselves uhl mao zeh were of higher socio economic level than those that remained in Russia. That is not to say that all uhl mao zeh were of higher socio economic level than those who remained in Russia. There were many of higher standing who foolishly remained in Russia, and there were many of humble background who escaped to Manchuria. But generally speaking, those who ended up in Harbin were the ones who could be considered to have had a "privileged" life in old Russia.
Although many suffered hardships while in Manchuria, many others were successful in pursuing their careers and establish themselves in Harbin. Those who had money sent their young abroad to be educated, mostly Europe. So, the second generation of uhl mao zeh, those that grew up in Harbin, became very unique in that they were well educated, very cosmopolitan, given to speaking several languages and trained as doctors, engineers, lawyers and other professions. They grew up in privileged surroundings and were more or less at the top of the food chain in Harbin. Contrast that with the situation faced by their less fortunate relatives who remained in Russia. By 1930s Stalin ordered that all ethnic Koreans be deported to Soviet Central Asia, thousands of miles away into god forsaken territory. Their only chance for higher education was if they were academically gifted, then they could possibly earn a scholarship to attend one of the Soviet state universities. A far cry from top European and American universities that some of the uhl mao zeh attended! So, for about a quarter of a century, from 1920 until 1945, the uhl mao zeh in Harbin found themselves in a unique situation where they may have been stateless and ruled by Chinese in the 20s and Japanese in the 30s and 40s, but they were in many cases better educated and to some extend envied by their rulers.
In some ways, the uhl mao zeh lived in an artificial world, as they soon found out when the Soviets occupied Manchuria and began deporting those who remained to Soviet Central Asia. That is, those that they did not imprison or kill outright. But while that world lasted, before the Soviet occupation, they lived in a unique world. They lived in a world where they never experienced racial discrimination. After all, they were in Asia and at the same time, at the top of the food chain, as mentioned earlier. They may not have been liked by other ethnic groups, but they were not discriminated against. The Japanese mistrusted the uhl mao zeh because they were too "foreign" or "western" yet they were racially and ethnically Asian! But at the same time, the Japanese envied the uhl mao zeh, their ability to move about with ease in western society, their ability to speak Russian and other languages. The Russians accepted them because despite the fact that they were Asian, they were culturally Russian, in many cases speaking better Russian than some of the less educated Russians in Harbin. So, at least for about a quarter of a century, they were able to enjoy the best of both worlds. But that was in Harbin. It would not have been the same elsewhere. Those who traveled abroad or even went to places like Shanghai or Hong Kong quickly discovered that racial discrimination was alive and well. They were shocked to see signs in theaters and other public places patronized by Europeans that said "No dogs or Chinese Allowed!" Such things were unthinkable in Harbin. Harbin was their haven, a place where they belonged even if they were stateless.
Those uhl mao zeh who managed to get away from Manchuria always remembered Harbin as a sort of a haven for them, where they never felt racial discrimination or were mistreated in anyway because of their ethnicity or racial background. Some even said that Russians were not racists, which of course, is not true. Russians could be very racist as they have shown throughout history, including the deportation of Russian Koreans! What these old Harbinites are forgetting or failing to realize is that because of their education and financial position, they were treated better. Had they been uneducated and poor, they would have felt the full brunt of racial discrimination, even in their beloved Harbin.
Monday, May 26, 2014
The Manchurian Warlords
In The Manchurian Tales, I make reference to the Chinese warlord of Manchuria Chang Tso Lin and the fact that he ruled Manchuria as his own private estate. Chang Tso Lin, whose name is also written as Zhang Zoulin and several other ways, was the all powerful warlord of Manchuria from about the late Ching Dynasty to 1928 when he was assassinated by the Japanese. Chang started his career as a bandit, a "hoonhoozy" in Manchuria. He was from a poor farmer's family and had no education to speak of. It is said that he ran across a wounded "hoonhoozy" while in the woods, overpowered him and killed him with an ax, then took his horse and gun and became a "hoonhoozy" himself. He quickly rose in power within his outlaw band and soon converted his group of brigands into an army unit by volunteering to fight for the Ching Dynasty during the Boxer Rebellion. When the Ching Dynasy fell, Chang simply declared himself the ruler of Manchuria and increased the size of his unofficial army. China was in complete chaos, divided and ruled by various warlords. In contrast, Manchuria was relatively peaceful. Russians had the city of Harbin which was very prosperous, the Japanese had gained concessions after the Russo-Japanese War and had control of Southern Manchurian Railway as well as the peninsula known as Kwantung with the port of Dairen. Japanese stationed their army in the region which became known as the Kwantung Army.
Chang Tso Lin set up headquarters in the old Manchurian capital of Mukden (Shenyang today) and built himself a huge villa. He had by that time gathered a 100,000 man army, known as Fengtian Army, well armed and being trained by Russian mercenaries who were former Tsarist officers. He controlled the agricultural and opium trade in Manchuria. He even had his own currency set up in Manchuria. Very wisely, he left Harbin alone, knowing that it would be foolish to mess with something that worked well. He simply collected taxes as a "representative" of Nationalist government. Naturally, the Nationalist government did not see a penny of the money that he made. He was completely independent, although Nationalist government allowed him to represent them! Strange bedfellows!
Japan knew better than to mess with Chang Tso Lin, for he at least kept Manchuria under control, the "hoonhoozy" in particular. Japan had its own problems with Korean Freedom fighters and communist guerrillas that operated in southern Manchuria, so they struck a deal with Chang Tso Lin. Basically it was that they would leave him alone if he kept Manchuria under control. It was a pretty good deal for a while, for both sides. However, Chang Tso Lin got somewhat ambitious and his dream was to rule all of China. He had built up the Fengtian Army to 300,000 men, even had an air force! He invaded China and fought the war lord who controlled the area around Peking (Beijing). On his second attempt he managed to conquer the territory and rule from Peking for a while! However, he was beginning to cooperate less and less with the Japanese and so the Japanese assassinated him in 1928. A bomb was planted under a bridge where Chang Tso Lin's private train crossed!
Japan was eager to see Chang Tso Lin's son, Chang Su Liang (Zhang Xueliang) take over. The son was totally opposite of his father in many ways. He was well educated in the West....spoke several languages, and was, like his father, a womanizer. He was also an opium addict. But after his father's death, he managed to kick the drug habit and stayed sober for the rest of his life. However, he did not care for Japanese rule and when Japan established the Manchukuo puppet regime, he found himself without a home. Instead of remaining in Manchuria, Chang Su Liang plunged himself into the chaos that was taking place in China. With the Japanese invasion of China at the start of Sino-Japanese War, Chang urged Chiang Kai Shek and Mao Tse Tung to unit and fight against Japanese. Although he felt that the communists were a bigger threat to China than the Japanese, he believed that Chinese should first get rid of the Japanese. He kidnapped Chiang Kai Shek at one point, trying to set up a meeting with the communists to agree upon a cease fire and fight the Japanese. Obviously, his plan did not work as he planned, but it did work somewhat. Both Chiang and Mao turned their attention to the Japanese for the duration of the war.
In 1943, even before Japan surrendered, the Chinese civil war started in earnest again and Chiang immediately had Chang Su Liang arrested and imprisoned. When the Nationalists fled to Taiwan in 1949, Chang Su Liang was taken along and kept under house arrest for the next 40 years! During his "captivity" he became a devout Baptist and studied Chinese history. After Chiang died in 1975, Chang requested that he be allowed to leave Taiwan. He was finally granted permission in 1993 when he moved to Hawaii. He lived quietly for the next 8 years before his death in 2001. No one in Hawaii knew who he was and what part he played in the history of northeast Asia. He was just an old man who was a devout Baptist who seemed to be very much into Chinese history.
Chang Tso Lin set up headquarters in the old Manchurian capital of Mukden (Shenyang today) and built himself a huge villa. He had by that time gathered a 100,000 man army, known as Fengtian Army, well armed and being trained by Russian mercenaries who were former Tsarist officers. He controlled the agricultural and opium trade in Manchuria. He even had his own currency set up in Manchuria. Very wisely, he left Harbin alone, knowing that it would be foolish to mess with something that worked well. He simply collected taxes as a "representative" of Nationalist government. Naturally, the Nationalist government did not see a penny of the money that he made. He was completely independent, although Nationalist government allowed him to represent them! Strange bedfellows!
Japan knew better than to mess with Chang Tso Lin, for he at least kept Manchuria under control, the "hoonhoozy" in particular. Japan had its own problems with Korean Freedom fighters and communist guerrillas that operated in southern Manchuria, so they struck a deal with Chang Tso Lin. Basically it was that they would leave him alone if he kept Manchuria under control. It was a pretty good deal for a while, for both sides. However, Chang Tso Lin got somewhat ambitious and his dream was to rule all of China. He had built up the Fengtian Army to 300,000 men, even had an air force! He invaded China and fought the war lord who controlled the area around Peking (Beijing). On his second attempt he managed to conquer the territory and rule from Peking for a while! However, he was beginning to cooperate less and less with the Japanese and so the Japanese assassinated him in 1928. A bomb was planted under a bridge where Chang Tso Lin's private train crossed!
Japan was eager to see Chang Tso Lin's son, Chang Su Liang (Zhang Xueliang) take over. The son was totally opposite of his father in many ways. He was well educated in the West....spoke several languages, and was, like his father, a womanizer. He was also an opium addict. But after his father's death, he managed to kick the drug habit and stayed sober for the rest of his life. However, he did not care for Japanese rule and when Japan established the Manchukuo puppet regime, he found himself without a home. Instead of remaining in Manchuria, Chang Su Liang plunged himself into the chaos that was taking place in China. With the Japanese invasion of China at the start of Sino-Japanese War, Chang urged Chiang Kai Shek and Mao Tse Tung to unit and fight against Japanese. Although he felt that the communists were a bigger threat to China than the Japanese, he believed that Chinese should first get rid of the Japanese. He kidnapped Chiang Kai Shek at one point, trying to set up a meeting with the communists to agree upon a cease fire and fight the Japanese. Obviously, his plan did not work as he planned, but it did work somewhat. Both Chiang and Mao turned their attention to the Japanese for the duration of the war.
In 1943, even before Japan surrendered, the Chinese civil war started in earnest again and Chiang immediately had Chang Su Liang arrested and imprisoned. When the Nationalists fled to Taiwan in 1949, Chang Su Liang was taken along and kept under house arrest for the next 40 years! During his "captivity" he became a devout Baptist and studied Chinese history. After Chiang died in 1975, Chang requested that he be allowed to leave Taiwan. He was finally granted permission in 1993 when he moved to Hawaii. He lived quietly for the next 8 years before his death in 2001. No one in Hawaii knew who he was and what part he played in the history of northeast Asia. He was just an old man who was a devout Baptist who seemed to be very much into Chinese history.
Thursday, May 22, 2014
The Manchurian Princess
As I have already mentioned, the purpose of these blogs is to provide information on subjects and areas that were either not covered, or covered insufficiently in The Manchurian Tales. The book was about the experiences of Russian Koreans, the uhl mao zeh in Manchuria, especially one family. However, as everyone can see, there is much more to the story of Manchuria than just the experiences of one Russian Korean family!
In The Manchurian Tales there is a chapter called "The Manchu Princess." It is about a particular Manchu princess of Jurchen tribe, a daughter of a Jurchen chief who marries a Korean and becomes Russofied. The Manchurian Princess that I am going to discuss now has nothing to do with Russians, and in fact, is almost the exact opposite of the Princess in The Manchurian Tales. Rather than Russofied (or Russianized), this one was Japanized.
She began life as a daughter of a Ching Dynasty official, a minor prince of the ruling Manchu clan of Aisin Gioro and a concubine. So, she was not even officially a princess. The Ching Dynasty was overthrown when she was five years old, and three years later, when she was eight, her father "gave" her to a Japanese couple who adopted her. The whole adoption process is somewhat murky, obviously it was a lot simpler to adopt a child in those days. There was even some talk that her father sold her to the Japanese, since he had fallen on hard times after the fall of Ching Dynasty. Her Chinese name was Chin Pi Hui, but she was given a Japanese name by her adoptive parents and became Yoshiko Kawashima. Yoshiko grew up in Japan and educated in Tokyo, some say she led a very bohemian life style, having numerous affairs with both men and women. She was a very attractive girl.
At age 20 she got tired of student life in Tokyo and left, went to Shanghai where she eventually met and married a Mongol prince. From this point on, her life story reads like a badly written Hollywood script. Her marriage to the Mongol prince didn't last long, so she divorced him and began living with a Japanese intelligence chief in Shanghai. This is where she first started her clandestine life as a Japanese spy. Her lover left Shanghai, but she remained and picked up where she left off with a Japanese Army general. She then moved to Manchuria and became an agent for the Kwantung Army. She convinced the Japanese to allow her to form an army of her own to combat the "hoonhoozy" and various guerrilla groups operating in Manchuria. She formed a 5000 man army made up of former bandits, "hoonhoozy" and as their commander, she led them in combat against anti Japanese guerrillas. She liked to dress in men's clothing, especially military uniforms.
It is said that she was instrumental in creating numerous incidents which gave the Japanese the excuse to launch their war against China. When Japan created the puppet state of Manchukuo and put Pu Yi on the throne, Yoshiko thought that her dream of restoring the Ching Dynasty had come to fruition. But she soon discovered that the whole business of Manchukuo was nothing but a sham. She became very disillusioned with the Japanese and fell out of favor. Actually, the Japanese had no more use for her, so they simply dumped her.
She was a colorful character, hated by Chinese nationalists and anyone else who was anti Japanese. The Japanese, on the other hand, viewed her as some sort of a heroic figure. Many favorable magazine and newspaper articles were written about her and even a movie was made with a top Japanese actress of the era portraying her. It is said that she was the inspiration for many of the evil comic book characters that were created in America.
Before the war ended, she fled Manchuria and ended up in Peking (Beijing) but was captured by the Nationalists in 1948, before they lost China to Mao and the communists. She was tried and hung as a traitor. Still, after the war more movies were made about her in Hong Kong and in Japan. Hollywood even had her as the character "Eastern Jewel" in the movie The Last Emperor, and she appeared in different guises, always as a villainous woman in movies about Asia.
Many view her as a kind of a sad character, a caricature of a heroic woman. Essentially, the Japanese created her, just as they are supposedly responsible for creating the name Manchuria (not Manchu, Manchu is a native name) and later the sham of a country called Manchukuo. Actually a sad story of a sad individual, someone who was "given away" by her father and mother, someone who never belonged anywhere. The Chinese and the Manchus hated her, yet she was a princess, if not by birth then by her first marriage to a Mongol prince.
In The Manchurian Tales there is a chapter called "The Manchu Princess." It is about a particular Manchu princess of Jurchen tribe, a daughter of a Jurchen chief who marries a Korean and becomes Russofied. The Manchurian Princess that I am going to discuss now has nothing to do with Russians, and in fact, is almost the exact opposite of the Princess in The Manchurian Tales. Rather than Russofied (or Russianized), this one was Japanized.
She began life as a daughter of a Ching Dynasty official, a minor prince of the ruling Manchu clan of Aisin Gioro and a concubine. So, she was not even officially a princess. The Ching Dynasty was overthrown when she was five years old, and three years later, when she was eight, her father "gave" her to a Japanese couple who adopted her. The whole adoption process is somewhat murky, obviously it was a lot simpler to adopt a child in those days. There was even some talk that her father sold her to the Japanese, since he had fallen on hard times after the fall of Ching Dynasty. Her Chinese name was Chin Pi Hui, but she was given a Japanese name by her adoptive parents and became Yoshiko Kawashima. Yoshiko grew up in Japan and educated in Tokyo, some say she led a very bohemian life style, having numerous affairs with both men and women. She was a very attractive girl.
At age 20 she got tired of student life in Tokyo and left, went to Shanghai where she eventually met and married a Mongol prince. From this point on, her life story reads like a badly written Hollywood script. Her marriage to the Mongol prince didn't last long, so she divorced him and began living with a Japanese intelligence chief in Shanghai. This is where she first started her clandestine life as a Japanese spy. Her lover left Shanghai, but she remained and picked up where she left off with a Japanese Army general. She then moved to Manchuria and became an agent for the Kwantung Army. She convinced the Japanese to allow her to form an army of her own to combat the "hoonhoozy" and various guerrilla groups operating in Manchuria. She formed a 5000 man army made up of former bandits, "hoonhoozy" and as their commander, she led them in combat against anti Japanese guerrillas. She liked to dress in men's clothing, especially military uniforms.
It is said that she was instrumental in creating numerous incidents which gave the Japanese the excuse to launch their war against China. When Japan created the puppet state of Manchukuo and put Pu Yi on the throne, Yoshiko thought that her dream of restoring the Ching Dynasty had come to fruition. But she soon discovered that the whole business of Manchukuo was nothing but a sham. She became very disillusioned with the Japanese and fell out of favor. Actually, the Japanese had no more use for her, so they simply dumped her.
She was a colorful character, hated by Chinese nationalists and anyone else who was anti Japanese. The Japanese, on the other hand, viewed her as some sort of a heroic figure. Many favorable magazine and newspaper articles were written about her and even a movie was made with a top Japanese actress of the era portraying her. It is said that she was the inspiration for many of the evil comic book characters that were created in America.
Before the war ended, she fled Manchuria and ended up in Peking (Beijing) but was captured by the Nationalists in 1948, before they lost China to Mao and the communists. She was tried and hung as a traitor. Still, after the war more movies were made about her in Hong Kong and in Japan. Hollywood even had her as the character "Eastern Jewel" in the movie The Last Emperor, and she appeared in different guises, always as a villainous woman in movies about Asia.
Many view her as a kind of a sad character, a caricature of a heroic woman. Essentially, the Japanese created her, just as they are supposedly responsible for creating the name Manchuria (not Manchu, Manchu is a native name) and later the sham of a country called Manchukuo. Actually a sad story of a sad individual, someone who was "given away" by her father and mother, someone who never belonged anywhere. The Chinese and the Manchus hated her, yet she was a princess, if not by birth then by her first marriage to a Mongol prince.
Sunday, May 18, 2014
Japanese Atrocities in Manchuria
I have already mentioned some of Japanese atrocities in Manchuria in previous blogs. Much of the information about these atrocities are well documented and even have living witnesses. Japanese atrocities during World War Two are just about common knowledge to anyone familiar with World War Two history. The infamous "Bataan Death March," as well as numerous accounts of inhumane treatment of POWs is common knowledge. Possibly, the single most horrific event involving Japanese atrocities of World War Two era is the infamous "Rape of Nanking." In 1937, during about a six week period, the Japanese army ran amok in Nanking (it was the capital of Nationalist China at the time) and raped and murdered innocent civilians while the Commanding General and his staff just stood by. The estimated number of murdered civilians range from 200,000 to 300,000! The International War Crimes Committee gave the conservative figure of around 200,000. The Chinese, using their city census numbers, claim that the figure is above 300,000! Whatever the true figure, it is absolutely mind-boggling that anyone could commit such an act. Amazingly, there are some die-hard nationalist politicians in Japan who deny that the "Rape of Nanking" ever took place! Their reaction is very much like those of Germans who refuse to acknowledge the existence of the concentration camps and the Nazi extermination of Jews during World War Two.
Manchuria was a place that was somewhat "hidden" from the rest of the world, especially after 1931 and the establishment of the puppet Manchukuo by the Japanese. Manchuria or Manchukuo, was essentially a large piece of land where Japan could set up factories to produce goods for the Japanese homeland, station their largest and best army, the Kwantung Army, grow opium to provide much needed cash to support their military ambitions, and conduct experiments that they wanted to keep from prying eyes of the world. Japan's biological and chemical warfare experiments in Manchuria are well known and documented. Chinese subjects were used to test their biological experiments, injecting the subjects with plague and other infectious vaccines. Chemical weapons such as mustard gas were used, tested on Chinese subjects. There were other medical experiments conducted that are too gruesome to describe. The degree of depravity of these atrocities are such that there aren't sufficient words to adequately describe them!
But perhaps the most compelling of all Japanese atrocities was subjecting women of conquered territories to become "comfort women," a euphemism that they used to describe women subjected to sexual slavery. It began in Korea, a country that Japan had colonized earlier. Korean girls, teenagers, were forcibly taken from their homes and schools and sent to China and Manchuria to become "comfort women" for Japanese soldiers. The so-called "comfort stations" were established throughout occupied regions of China and in Manchuria. These girls were brutally treated. They weren't prostitutes, since they weren't paid. They were simply raped night after night by Japanese soldiers. Their purpose was to provide "comfort" to Japanese soldiers. This was not at all like the official brothels set up by Nazi Germany for their troops. Italy also had brothels for troops, but they were not official like German brothels. The Japanese did not bother with brothels, they simply had sexual slavery.
Korean women constituted the largest number of "comfort women." It is estimated that there were about 200,000 Korean "comfort women." Once a region was occupied by the Japanese, they forced women of other nations to become "comfort women" as well and established "comfort stations" in that region. The Chinese women made up the second largest group, followed by women of Southeast Asia. Filipino women also made up a large group once Japan conquered the Philippines. In total, there were about 400,000 "comfort women" during World War Two era.
Today, the relationship between Japan and Republic of Korea is somewhat strained over the "comfort women" issue. The Koreans want the Japanese government to acknowledge what they did and apologize to the survivors and pay restitution. Considering the number of survivors left today, the amount that the Japanese would have to pay would be insignificant! The main thing is for Japan to acknowledge what it did and offer an apology. Yet, this has become a major stumbling block. It seems that the same nationalistic politicians who refuse to accept that the "Rape of Nanking" ever took place, insist that the "comfort women" were all prostitutes and not sex slaves! Many Japanese scholars are some of the most active supporters of Korea's "comfort women" issue with Japan. They regularly give TV interviews and participate in anti government demonstrations, demanding that the Japanese government correct the wrong. There is also a grass-roots movement among Japanese women protesting the government stance on this issue. Yet, for some incredible and incomprehensible reason, the Japanese government refuses to offer an official apology!
It is quite clear that the "comfort women" issue is very important to Koreans, and until such time as when Japan officially acknowledges its wrong doing and apologizes, the relationship between the two countries will remain strained. Yet, it is vitally important now more than ever, for Japan to have a strong ally in South Korea. North Korea's ability to strike Japan with their missiles is now an established fact, Japan needs an ally on the Korean peninsula!
Manchuria was a place that was somewhat "hidden" from the rest of the world, especially after 1931 and the establishment of the puppet Manchukuo by the Japanese. Manchuria or Manchukuo, was essentially a large piece of land where Japan could set up factories to produce goods for the Japanese homeland, station their largest and best army, the Kwantung Army, grow opium to provide much needed cash to support their military ambitions, and conduct experiments that they wanted to keep from prying eyes of the world. Japan's biological and chemical warfare experiments in Manchuria are well known and documented. Chinese subjects were used to test their biological experiments, injecting the subjects with plague and other infectious vaccines. Chemical weapons such as mustard gas were used, tested on Chinese subjects. There were other medical experiments conducted that are too gruesome to describe. The degree of depravity of these atrocities are such that there aren't sufficient words to adequately describe them!
But perhaps the most compelling of all Japanese atrocities was subjecting women of conquered territories to become "comfort women," a euphemism that they used to describe women subjected to sexual slavery. It began in Korea, a country that Japan had colonized earlier. Korean girls, teenagers, were forcibly taken from their homes and schools and sent to China and Manchuria to become "comfort women" for Japanese soldiers. The so-called "comfort stations" were established throughout occupied regions of China and in Manchuria. These girls were brutally treated. They weren't prostitutes, since they weren't paid. They were simply raped night after night by Japanese soldiers. Their purpose was to provide "comfort" to Japanese soldiers. This was not at all like the official brothels set up by Nazi Germany for their troops. Italy also had brothels for troops, but they were not official like German brothels. The Japanese did not bother with brothels, they simply had sexual slavery.
Korean women constituted the largest number of "comfort women." It is estimated that there were about 200,000 Korean "comfort women." Once a region was occupied by the Japanese, they forced women of other nations to become "comfort women" as well and established "comfort stations" in that region. The Chinese women made up the second largest group, followed by women of Southeast Asia. Filipino women also made up a large group once Japan conquered the Philippines. In total, there were about 400,000 "comfort women" during World War Two era.
Today, the relationship between Japan and Republic of Korea is somewhat strained over the "comfort women" issue. The Koreans want the Japanese government to acknowledge what they did and apologize to the survivors and pay restitution. Considering the number of survivors left today, the amount that the Japanese would have to pay would be insignificant! The main thing is for Japan to acknowledge what it did and offer an apology. Yet, this has become a major stumbling block. It seems that the same nationalistic politicians who refuse to accept that the "Rape of Nanking" ever took place, insist that the "comfort women" were all prostitutes and not sex slaves! Many Japanese scholars are some of the most active supporters of Korea's "comfort women" issue with Japan. They regularly give TV interviews and participate in anti government demonstrations, demanding that the Japanese government correct the wrong. There is also a grass-roots movement among Japanese women protesting the government stance on this issue. Yet, for some incredible and incomprehensible reason, the Japanese government refuses to offer an official apology!
It is quite clear that the "comfort women" issue is very important to Koreans, and until such time as when Japan officially acknowledges its wrong doing and apologizes, the relationship between the two countries will remain strained. Yet, it is vitally important now more than ever, for Japan to have a strong ally in South Korea. North Korea's ability to strike Japan with their missiles is now an established fact, Japan needs an ally on the Korean peninsula!
Wednesday, May 14, 2014
People's Court
Revolutions, as a rule, have a way of bringing out the worst of human traits. Usually, there is some bloodletting when the victors takes over. Rarely do we find victors in a revolution displaying compassion and fair treatment of the vanquished, although it has been known to happen. Our own revolution was somewhat of an unusual one, since there really wasn't any bloodletting or other violence that followed. The French Revolution brought about the act of beheading to an art form. Another thing that was common place during the French Revolution was the impromptu court system, a kangaroo court that was used to condemn and behead many people. The Russian Revolution that took place in the early 20th Century refined this "impromptu" or kangaroo court system and even came up with a new name to give it legitimacy, "People's Court."
In "People's Court," not to be confused with the TV reality court shows, an accused individual is dragged out into the streets and a crowd is ordered to gather around. Then after rattling off charges against the individual, the crowd is ordered to pass judgment on the accused, guilty or not guilty. Usually the crowd is so intimidated by the "arresting" officials (police or soldiers), that they automatically respond the way they think they are supposed to respond - guilty. At this point the accused individual is usually, to the horror of the crowd (jury), is shot on the spot! The Bolsheviks carried out these "People's Courts" throughout the revolution and the civil war that followed. The Chinese communists picked up this little game from the Russians and they too practiced it quite frequently during their civil war from 1945 to 1949. However, once the revolution/civil war was over, this practice stopped, although a modified form was used during China's Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, the same "court system" was employed but the guilty verdict did not bring about execution. Mostly a guilty verdict meant imprisonment.
During their short three month occupation of South Korea, the North Korean Army, the In-min-gun (People's Army) conducted "People's Courts" frequently. I mention this in the chapter dealing with North Korean occupation of the south in The Manchurian Tales. They used it mainly as a form of intimidation of the population. The idea was to get absolute obedience from the population. "People's Courts" were carried out in the streets of Seoul and other cities under North Korean occupation. There was no imprisonment for the guilty, they were simply shot on the spot. People were dragged out into the street and shot for the most minor of offenses! Anyone who had anything at all to do with South Korean government or Americans was a prime candidate for "People's Court" and a bullet in the back of the head. It is amazing how many people North Koreans managed to kill this way during their short three month occupation of the south!
Unfortunately, this mentality and attitude still persists with the North Koreans, starting with their "Great Leader" Kim Jung Un, on down to the private soldier in the North Korean People's Army. Do you wonder what kind of a court Kim Jung Un's uncle faced before he was shot? I'll bet it was "People's Court" with a specially selected jury! It is, therefore, mind boggling to think that we still have hope of coming to some sort of an understanding with such people.
During Vietnam War, the Viet Cong quite often used People's Court as a form of intimidation in the villages. However, they didn't bother to ask for a verdict from the crowd, I guess the VC didn't believe in the jury system, they simply shot or beheaded their target. However, once the communists took over the whole country, they tried the "re-education" approach rather than execution! Like the Chinese communists, once they took over the country, they too tried a less violent approach. Don't count on the North Koreans to become "softer" and "gentler" should they take over! It would be a major mistake to think that the North Koreans are like the South Koreans, that they only happen to be located in the north and under communist rule. They can become like the people in the south, but not without some serious "re-education," starting with kids in elementary schools! Although no doubt many would gladly change sides, by now the population of North Korea has lived under the same system for over a half a century. Three generations of people are products of this system. It will take a lot of work!
In "People's Court," not to be confused with the TV reality court shows, an accused individual is dragged out into the streets and a crowd is ordered to gather around. Then after rattling off charges against the individual, the crowd is ordered to pass judgment on the accused, guilty or not guilty. Usually the crowd is so intimidated by the "arresting" officials (police or soldiers), that they automatically respond the way they think they are supposed to respond - guilty. At this point the accused individual is usually, to the horror of the crowd (jury), is shot on the spot! The Bolsheviks carried out these "People's Courts" throughout the revolution and the civil war that followed. The Chinese communists picked up this little game from the Russians and they too practiced it quite frequently during their civil war from 1945 to 1949. However, once the revolution/civil war was over, this practice stopped, although a modified form was used during China's Cultural Revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, the same "court system" was employed but the guilty verdict did not bring about execution. Mostly a guilty verdict meant imprisonment.
During their short three month occupation of South Korea, the North Korean Army, the In-min-gun (People's Army) conducted "People's Courts" frequently. I mention this in the chapter dealing with North Korean occupation of the south in The Manchurian Tales. They used it mainly as a form of intimidation of the population. The idea was to get absolute obedience from the population. "People's Courts" were carried out in the streets of Seoul and other cities under North Korean occupation. There was no imprisonment for the guilty, they were simply shot on the spot. People were dragged out into the street and shot for the most minor of offenses! Anyone who had anything at all to do with South Korean government or Americans was a prime candidate for "People's Court" and a bullet in the back of the head. It is amazing how many people North Koreans managed to kill this way during their short three month occupation of the south!
Unfortunately, this mentality and attitude still persists with the North Koreans, starting with their "Great Leader" Kim Jung Un, on down to the private soldier in the North Korean People's Army. Do you wonder what kind of a court Kim Jung Un's uncle faced before he was shot? I'll bet it was "People's Court" with a specially selected jury! It is, therefore, mind boggling to think that we still have hope of coming to some sort of an understanding with such people.
During Vietnam War, the Viet Cong quite often used People's Court as a form of intimidation in the villages. However, they didn't bother to ask for a verdict from the crowd, I guess the VC didn't believe in the jury system, they simply shot or beheaded their target. However, once the communists took over the whole country, they tried the "re-education" approach rather than execution! Like the Chinese communists, once they took over the country, they too tried a less violent approach. Don't count on the North Koreans to become "softer" and "gentler" should they take over! It would be a major mistake to think that the North Koreans are like the South Koreans, that they only happen to be located in the north and under communist rule. They can become like the people in the south, but not without some serious "re-education," starting with kids in elementary schools! Although no doubt many would gladly change sides, by now the population of North Korea has lived under the same system for over a half a century. Three generations of people are products of this system. It will take a lot of work!
Sunday, May 11, 2014
A Place Called Manchuria
Most people do not realize how closely various ethnic groups in a place that is called Manchuria are tied together. It is a place where Russians, Chinese, Koreans, Mongols, and Manchus are all intermeshed, have been forced to intermingle through circumstances of history. In The Manchurian Tales I tried to show that by using the various characters of Russian Korean descent and their adventures to tell the story. Despite the fact that Manchuria today is simply a part of China, it nevertheless was a separate region that was inhabited by non-Chinese people throughout the ages. China did manage to send in many settlers and the population today is predominantly Han Chinese. But until fairly recently in history, it did not have such high Chinese population.
In previous blogs I mentioned that Manchuria, or the region that is known as Manchuria, was for centuries part of several Korean empires. The earliest was Gochosun, from which the name Chosun was taken for a later empire and to this day the name Chosun is used to refer to Korea. Gochosun empire was followed by one of the greatest Korean empires, the Koguryo. Koguryo fell after about a 700 year period. From Koguryo the name Koryo was derived, a later empire, and from which the name Korea was born. The last Korean empire to rule over Manchuria was Balhae or Palhe, which lasted only a couple of centuries. However, as I stated in an earlier blog, it is unlikely that all of the people simply left when the empires fell. What happened was that they melded into the local population of various tribes, tribes that were scattered throughout and went by different names, later to be called "Manchu" tribes. I am not trying to claim that whole territory for Korea, all this took place a long, long time ago. I am only pointing out that the people of Manchuria are closely related to Koreans, for they are descendants of ancient Koreans.
The Korean influence in Manchu culture is quite obvious. The traditional Manchu dress, particularly women's dress, owes more to ancient Korean attire than Chinese. The large, elaborate headdresses worn by Manchu women are an almost exact duplicate of ancient Korean headdresses worn by high born women of Gochosun and later Koguryo. The Korean headdresses for women became smaller, and made mostly of hair, while the Manchu headdress stayed the same as it was worn by women of Goshosun and Koguryo. This is but just a small piece of evidence tying the Manchu culture with Korean culture.
Some Chinese claim that Manchuria was always Chinese, but that makes no sense in many regards. The first part of the Great Wall that was built around 600 BC was to protect China's northeastern frontier. The wall was built from the Yellow Sea, west of the port of Dairen and the ancient Manchu capital of Mukden, on northward to Inner Mongolia. Chinese themselves referred to the region east of the wall as guandong. the other side of the pass or wall! It was almost as if the Chinese felt that the region did not deserve a proper name. Later it became known as Kwantung, and the Japanese adopted that name for their army which was stationed in Manchuria.
When the Manchu army conquered China, they breached the great wall at its southernmost point by the sea shore, to invade China. The Manchu army consisted of several "banners" made up of different ethnic groups. These "banners" and the bannermen consisted of Mongols, Chinese, Koreans, and various Manchu tribes. They were all a part of the great Manchu army that conquered China and established the Ching Dynasty, the last dynasty in China. Incidentally, the great Mongol army of Chingis Khan was also built the same way. It consisted of various banners made up of different ethnic groups. Only a small portion was actually of Mongol tribe! The population of Mongolia was never big enough to sustain such a great army, so the Mongols used other ethnic groups as their "bannermen." The Manchus did the same thing.
The eastern part of Manchuria that was known as the Outer Manchuria until it was annexed by Russia around the time of our civil war, also had a mixed population of various Manchu tribes, Mongols, and Chinese. The city of Vladivostok, which was just a small Manchu fishing village, had a large population of Chinese who grew vegetables and also worked the copper mines. In 1860 when Russians first set foot in that region, it was still just a fishing village. The first Russian building did not go up until a few years later, after Russia had annexed all of Outer Manchuria. By the time Vladivostok was built as a Russian city and given its Russian name, Russia was eyeing the rest of Manchuria and gained concession from China to build its own city of Harbin and build the Southern Manchurian railroad. Chronologically speaking, as Russian cities, both Vladivostok and later Harbin, are much younger than just about any major city in America! So, Russia too, with its annexation and just simple colonization (Harbin) managed to get into the mix in Manchuria. Half of the original territory known as Manchuria is now Russian, the other half is Chinese. Yet, the native population is racially and ethnically of Korean descent, sort of! But they were Koreans an awful long time ago, today they are simply natives of the region!
In previous blogs I mentioned that Manchuria, or the region that is known as Manchuria, was for centuries part of several Korean empires. The earliest was Gochosun, from which the name Chosun was taken for a later empire and to this day the name Chosun is used to refer to Korea. Gochosun empire was followed by one of the greatest Korean empires, the Koguryo. Koguryo fell after about a 700 year period. From Koguryo the name Koryo was derived, a later empire, and from which the name Korea was born. The last Korean empire to rule over Manchuria was Balhae or Palhe, which lasted only a couple of centuries. However, as I stated in an earlier blog, it is unlikely that all of the people simply left when the empires fell. What happened was that they melded into the local population of various tribes, tribes that were scattered throughout and went by different names, later to be called "Manchu" tribes. I am not trying to claim that whole territory for Korea, all this took place a long, long time ago. I am only pointing out that the people of Manchuria are closely related to Koreans, for they are descendants of ancient Koreans.
The Korean influence in Manchu culture is quite obvious. The traditional Manchu dress, particularly women's dress, owes more to ancient Korean attire than Chinese. The large, elaborate headdresses worn by Manchu women are an almost exact duplicate of ancient Korean headdresses worn by high born women of Gochosun and later Koguryo. The Korean headdresses for women became smaller, and made mostly of hair, while the Manchu headdress stayed the same as it was worn by women of Goshosun and Koguryo. This is but just a small piece of evidence tying the Manchu culture with Korean culture.
Some Chinese claim that Manchuria was always Chinese, but that makes no sense in many regards. The first part of the Great Wall that was built around 600 BC was to protect China's northeastern frontier. The wall was built from the Yellow Sea, west of the port of Dairen and the ancient Manchu capital of Mukden, on northward to Inner Mongolia. Chinese themselves referred to the region east of the wall as guandong. the other side of the pass or wall! It was almost as if the Chinese felt that the region did not deserve a proper name. Later it became known as Kwantung, and the Japanese adopted that name for their army which was stationed in Manchuria.
When the Manchu army conquered China, they breached the great wall at its southernmost point by the sea shore, to invade China. The Manchu army consisted of several "banners" made up of different ethnic groups. These "banners" and the bannermen consisted of Mongols, Chinese, Koreans, and various Manchu tribes. They were all a part of the great Manchu army that conquered China and established the Ching Dynasty, the last dynasty in China. Incidentally, the great Mongol army of Chingis Khan was also built the same way. It consisted of various banners made up of different ethnic groups. Only a small portion was actually of Mongol tribe! The population of Mongolia was never big enough to sustain such a great army, so the Mongols used other ethnic groups as their "bannermen." The Manchus did the same thing.
The eastern part of Manchuria that was known as the Outer Manchuria until it was annexed by Russia around the time of our civil war, also had a mixed population of various Manchu tribes, Mongols, and Chinese. The city of Vladivostok, which was just a small Manchu fishing village, had a large population of Chinese who grew vegetables and also worked the copper mines. In 1860 when Russians first set foot in that region, it was still just a fishing village. The first Russian building did not go up until a few years later, after Russia had annexed all of Outer Manchuria. By the time Vladivostok was built as a Russian city and given its Russian name, Russia was eyeing the rest of Manchuria and gained concession from China to build its own city of Harbin and build the Southern Manchurian railroad. Chronologically speaking, as Russian cities, both Vladivostok and later Harbin, are much younger than just about any major city in America! So, Russia too, with its annexation and just simple colonization (Harbin) managed to get into the mix in Manchuria. Half of the original territory known as Manchuria is now Russian, the other half is Chinese. Yet, the native population is racially and ethnically of Korean descent, sort of! But they were Koreans an awful long time ago, today they are simply natives of the region!
Wednesday, May 7, 2014
Women Warriors 2
In 1948, even before the outbreak of the Korean War in June of 1950, North Korea launched a guerrilla warfare campaign against the south. Kim Il Sung sent 5,000 guerrillas into the south to start an insurgency campaign. These guerrillas were just about all veterans of the Chinese Civil War, having fought as guerrillas against the Nationalist forces for several years. They were, in other words, very experienced. Some of the older leadership was actually made up of former Korean Freedom Fighters against the Japanese, who escaped to China and joined up with the Chinese communists. Within this guerrilla force were a number of women. Mao had always used female fighters because he needed all the fighters that he could get, so, many young communist Korean women who fled to China to escape the Japanese, joined up with Mao's communist forces.
The "palchisan," as they were called, a Korean pronunciation of partizan, a Russian name for guerrilla, though fierce fighters, did not experience the success that Kim Il Sung and the Soviets envisioned. The main reason being, they did not have the support of the people in the countryside. A guerrilla cannot survive without the support of the people, it is as simple as that. They were all from the north and the southerners did not accept them. Many believe that the Soviets and Kim Il Sung were certain that the guerrillas alone could take over the south, but having failed, the north launched an invasion of the south in June of 1950.
Many of the "palchisan" were killed and some went into hiding or escaped back to the north. When the North Korean army came into the south, the guerrillas reemerged, and many women were seen among them. They were feared even more than the uniformed soldiers for they seem to have their own rules and regulations and were not answerable to the uniformed army.
The U.S. took note of that, realized that the guerrillas would have been very much more successful had they been able to mix-in with the southern population, that what kept them from success was their inability to gain support of the people. There were people in the U.S. Army, particularly those who had been exposed to the work of the OSS during World War Two, who felt that an unconventional force was needed in Korea. However, General McArthur, who was the Supreme Commander of UN Forces in Korea at the time refused to have anything to do with any unconventional force. During WWII, McArthur's area of operation (AO) was the only place where OSS did not operate. McArthur did not want any special operations in his AO. There were the Army Alamo Scouts that were created to provide intelligence gathering ability, but they were created almost secretly, without McArthur's knowledge. But once McArthur was removed in April of 1951 and General Ridgeway appointed Commander, the 8th Army went full speed creating an unconventional force called the United Nations Partisan Infantry in Korea, the UNPIK. The force was made up of north Korean volunteers, recruited from the ranks of defectors. They were trained and led initially by WWII veterans of OSS and Rangers. Later, the newly minted members of the brand new US Army Special Forces out of Ft. Bragg were used as cadre. The UNPIK was successful, however, it did run into problems dealing with our own other units and their officers who viewed them with suspicion and mistrust.
At the same time, the fledging Central Intelligence Agency which had been in existence for three years, since 1947, started a program that was euphemistically called the Korean Liaison Officer program. The CIA, with the help of its Korean employees, recruited and trained agents to be parachuted into North Korea to gather intelligence information. Sounds simple enough, but there was a problem.
Korea is a small country, yet, there are distinct dialectical differences from one region to another. A mere distance of 50 miles would bring about a different speech pattern and word usage. This was due to the fact that the population was not mobile and under Japanese rule for a half a century, travel was restricted. Besides, most people could not afford to travel, and people tended to stay close to home all their lives. The transportation system was not very good and the people were poor. Unlike in America, where generally speaking, people within several hundred mile radius would speak more or less the same way, that was not the case in Korea back in those days! An American, even well versed in Korean language, would have a hard time distinguishing the subtleties of accents and intonations used from one region of Korea to another. So, although the KLO agents were supposed to be all from the north, many who were from the south were recruited.
During wartime job opportunities are not exactly abundant. Women in particular found it very hard to earn a living, trying to survive. Most employment offered to women were menial or unacceptable, like prostitution. The KLO program offered a very lucrative pay, an amount that would be very hard to earn in any conventional manner. So, naturally many young women volunteered for the KLO jobs. Some were indeed northerners, others lied about their origin just so that they could get the job. Korean employees of CIA who were tasked with recruiting agents for the program received a bonus for each recruit. Naturally, some of them lied, even when they knew that the recruit was not a northerner, just so that they could get a bonus. Some of these "recruiters" made a lot of money. In the process, they sent the agents to certain death.
The recruits, after basic intelligence and parachute training were dropped into various areas in North Korea. Their job was to gather intelligence information and then find their way back to the south to report what they saw. The success ratio was very low. Most agents were captured almost immediately upon landing in North Korea. Some were turned by the North Koreans and returned to the south to be double agents. Initially, the program was made up predominantly with men, but as the program started to run low on recruits, women were recruited more and more. Very few, if any of these women returned. A handful that may have found their way back were more often than not, double agents. Sadly, the participation of women in the Korean War was not especially on the positive side. Owing to their desperate financial situation and the greediness and ruthlessness of KLO recruiters, many young women collected their initial bonus pay which they gave to their families, then went off to their death!
The "palchisan," as they were called, a Korean pronunciation of partizan, a Russian name for guerrilla, though fierce fighters, did not experience the success that Kim Il Sung and the Soviets envisioned. The main reason being, they did not have the support of the people in the countryside. A guerrilla cannot survive without the support of the people, it is as simple as that. They were all from the north and the southerners did not accept them. Many believe that the Soviets and Kim Il Sung were certain that the guerrillas alone could take over the south, but having failed, the north launched an invasion of the south in June of 1950.
Many of the "palchisan" were killed and some went into hiding or escaped back to the north. When the North Korean army came into the south, the guerrillas reemerged, and many women were seen among them. They were feared even more than the uniformed soldiers for they seem to have their own rules and regulations and were not answerable to the uniformed army.
The U.S. took note of that, realized that the guerrillas would have been very much more successful had they been able to mix-in with the southern population, that what kept them from success was their inability to gain support of the people. There were people in the U.S. Army, particularly those who had been exposed to the work of the OSS during World War Two, who felt that an unconventional force was needed in Korea. However, General McArthur, who was the Supreme Commander of UN Forces in Korea at the time refused to have anything to do with any unconventional force. During WWII, McArthur's area of operation (AO) was the only place where OSS did not operate. McArthur did not want any special operations in his AO. There were the Army Alamo Scouts that were created to provide intelligence gathering ability, but they were created almost secretly, without McArthur's knowledge. But once McArthur was removed in April of 1951 and General Ridgeway appointed Commander, the 8th Army went full speed creating an unconventional force called the United Nations Partisan Infantry in Korea, the UNPIK. The force was made up of north Korean volunteers, recruited from the ranks of defectors. They were trained and led initially by WWII veterans of OSS and Rangers. Later, the newly minted members of the brand new US Army Special Forces out of Ft. Bragg were used as cadre. The UNPIK was successful, however, it did run into problems dealing with our own other units and their officers who viewed them with suspicion and mistrust.
At the same time, the fledging Central Intelligence Agency which had been in existence for three years, since 1947, started a program that was euphemistically called the Korean Liaison Officer program. The CIA, with the help of its Korean employees, recruited and trained agents to be parachuted into North Korea to gather intelligence information. Sounds simple enough, but there was a problem.
Korea is a small country, yet, there are distinct dialectical differences from one region to another. A mere distance of 50 miles would bring about a different speech pattern and word usage. This was due to the fact that the population was not mobile and under Japanese rule for a half a century, travel was restricted. Besides, most people could not afford to travel, and people tended to stay close to home all their lives. The transportation system was not very good and the people were poor. Unlike in America, where generally speaking, people within several hundred mile radius would speak more or less the same way, that was not the case in Korea back in those days! An American, even well versed in Korean language, would have a hard time distinguishing the subtleties of accents and intonations used from one region of Korea to another. So, although the KLO agents were supposed to be all from the north, many who were from the south were recruited.
During wartime job opportunities are not exactly abundant. Women in particular found it very hard to earn a living, trying to survive. Most employment offered to women were menial or unacceptable, like prostitution. The KLO program offered a very lucrative pay, an amount that would be very hard to earn in any conventional manner. So, naturally many young women volunteered for the KLO jobs. Some were indeed northerners, others lied about their origin just so that they could get the job. Korean employees of CIA who were tasked with recruiting agents for the program received a bonus for each recruit. Naturally, some of them lied, even when they knew that the recruit was not a northerner, just so that they could get a bonus. Some of these "recruiters" made a lot of money. In the process, they sent the agents to certain death.
The recruits, after basic intelligence and parachute training were dropped into various areas in North Korea. Their job was to gather intelligence information and then find their way back to the south to report what they saw. The success ratio was very low. Most agents were captured almost immediately upon landing in North Korea. Some were turned by the North Koreans and returned to the south to be double agents. Initially, the program was made up predominantly with men, but as the program started to run low on recruits, women were recruited more and more. Very few, if any of these women returned. A handful that may have found their way back were more often than not, double agents. Sadly, the participation of women in the Korean War was not especially on the positive side. Owing to their desperate financial situation and the greediness and ruthlessness of KLO recruiters, many young women collected their initial bonus pay which they gave to their families, then went off to their death!
Women Warriors
Throughout history, women have been involved in warfare, sometimes in direct combat, but more often in the more subtle form, such as espionage. Perhaps the earliest known women warriors were the mythical Amazons who were reputedly big and strong, and equal to any man in physical strength and fighting ability. So, beginning with early history, there have been accounts of women warriors, either individuals or groups, that participated in combat. But more commonly, women were involved in the more subtle form of warfare, espionage.
In America, going back to the Revolutionary War, there were many women involved in espionage. During the American Civil War, there were many famous cases of women conducting espionage both for the Union as well as Confederacy. There were isolated cases of women dressing as men and participating in battle, but those were rare and exceptions. It wasn't until almost a hundred years later, during World War Two, that women's participation in warfare became more noticeable. On our side, women were not permitted to serve in combat, so women mostly served in administrative and medical fields. There were, however, some American women who chose to served in a more direct capacity and found a way by volunteering to serve with the British SOE. The SOE, or the Special Operations Executive, was the British spy and special operations outfit. It employed various men and women, many from Nazi occupied countries, and trained them to conduct espionage and guerrilla warfare. They would then be either parachuted or landed by sea to infiltrate the Nazi occupied zone and link up with local resistance. Many incredibly brave people, men and women served in this capacity.
An American woman, Virginia Hall, became Nazi Germany's one of the most wanted enemy spies during the war. Virginia, who was fluent in French, parachuted into France after receiving training and caused great damage to Nazi Occupying forces. Oh, by the way, Virginia had lost a leg in a hunting accident before the war, so she had a wooden leg! Virginia Hall survived the war and received the Order of the British Empire and a Distinguished Service Cross from our government.
But our restriction on women serving in combat kept other women from distinguishing themselves in warfare like they did in other countries. Our own OSS, which was more or less patterned after the British SOE, did not employ women quite like the British. OSS did have female members, but they were mostly used in administrative capacity. In rare instances there were female OSS members that were used operationally, but it was very rare. There were no known female members of Jedburgh Teams, the operational teams that parachuted into enemy territory to conduct guerrilla warfare.
Perhaps the Soviet Union used more women in combat than any other country at any time before or since World War Two. Initially, the Soviet government did not want to allow women to serve in combat, despite repeated petitions and requests by women to be allowed to serve in such capacity. But the disastrous events at the outset of the war, where the Soviet Union lost millions of men to the Nazis, forced the Soviet leaders to rethink their policy in that regard. Reluctantly, they agreed to allow women to serve in combat. As a result close to a million (around 800,000) women served in combat during the war. There were entire infantry and armored units made up of women in the army, and several fighter and bomber units in the air force. Two women fighter pilots, Lydia Litvyak and Yekaterina Budanova, became the first female fighter aces ever! Litvyak shot down 12 Nazi planes and Budanova shot down 11! A total of 89 women received the Soviet Union's highest award (equivalent to our Medal of Honor), the Hero of the Soviet Union. The youngest recipient was an 18 year old high schooler, Zoya Kosmodemyankaya.
There were over 2,000 women snipers in the Soviet Red Army. The best known female sniper was Ludmila Pavlichenko who had 309 confirmed kills, mostly at Stalingrad. Ludmila was in her fourth year as a history student in the university when she volunteered to serve. After the war she finished her education and became a college history professor. The youngest female sniper was Klavdiya Kalugina who was 17 when she volunteered to become a sniper. There were several Russian Korean women who served as snipers as well as in other capacities in combat.
There were also many women guerrilla fighters. The youngest known female guerrilla fighter was Zinaida Portnova who joined the partisans when she was 15 and was captured and killed at 17. The aforementioned beautiful 18 year old, Zoya Kosmodemyankava was a guerrilla fighter. She was captured by the Nazis, brutally tortured and raped, but refused to give up the names of other guerrillas and their location. The Nazis stripped her naked and took her out in freezing temperatures to be hung in a village square as an example to others. The brave and defiant 18 year old shouted at the Nazis as they slipped the noose around her neck, "you can't kill us all!" There was no shortage of incredibly heroic women warriors.
At this point it may be a bit confusing as to why I am talking about all these women warriors and what that has to do with The Manchurian Tales. I wanted to show the tremendous impact that women warriors have had on the outcome of wars, particularly in the case of the Soviet Union and World War Two. I do make mention of women's involvement during the Korean War in clandestine operations in The Manchurian Tales, and my intent is to give more information to the readers.
Women's participation in the Korean War did not result in any great victories or dramatic outcomes. In fact, it is but one of the many sad and poorly hatched and conducted operations that involved women, the so-called KLO or Korean Liaison Officer program, a euphemistic name given to this operation. On the communist side, they did employ female guerrilla members in their "Palchisan" units that infiltrated into South Korea, but on our side, the KLO female agents were about the extent of direct participation by women in that war.
In America, going back to the Revolutionary War, there were many women involved in espionage. During the American Civil War, there were many famous cases of women conducting espionage both for the Union as well as Confederacy. There were isolated cases of women dressing as men and participating in battle, but those were rare and exceptions. It wasn't until almost a hundred years later, during World War Two, that women's participation in warfare became more noticeable. On our side, women were not permitted to serve in combat, so women mostly served in administrative and medical fields. There were, however, some American women who chose to served in a more direct capacity and found a way by volunteering to serve with the British SOE. The SOE, or the Special Operations Executive, was the British spy and special operations outfit. It employed various men and women, many from Nazi occupied countries, and trained them to conduct espionage and guerrilla warfare. They would then be either parachuted or landed by sea to infiltrate the Nazi occupied zone and link up with local resistance. Many incredibly brave people, men and women served in this capacity.
An American woman, Virginia Hall, became Nazi Germany's one of the most wanted enemy spies during the war. Virginia, who was fluent in French, parachuted into France after receiving training and caused great damage to Nazi Occupying forces. Oh, by the way, Virginia had lost a leg in a hunting accident before the war, so she had a wooden leg! Virginia Hall survived the war and received the Order of the British Empire and a Distinguished Service Cross from our government.
But our restriction on women serving in combat kept other women from distinguishing themselves in warfare like they did in other countries. Our own OSS, which was more or less patterned after the British SOE, did not employ women quite like the British. OSS did have female members, but they were mostly used in administrative capacity. In rare instances there were female OSS members that were used operationally, but it was very rare. There were no known female members of Jedburgh Teams, the operational teams that parachuted into enemy territory to conduct guerrilla warfare.
Perhaps the Soviet Union used more women in combat than any other country at any time before or since World War Two. Initially, the Soviet government did not want to allow women to serve in combat, despite repeated petitions and requests by women to be allowed to serve in such capacity. But the disastrous events at the outset of the war, where the Soviet Union lost millions of men to the Nazis, forced the Soviet leaders to rethink their policy in that regard. Reluctantly, they agreed to allow women to serve in combat. As a result close to a million (around 800,000) women served in combat during the war. There were entire infantry and armored units made up of women in the army, and several fighter and bomber units in the air force. Two women fighter pilots, Lydia Litvyak and Yekaterina Budanova, became the first female fighter aces ever! Litvyak shot down 12 Nazi planes and Budanova shot down 11! A total of 89 women received the Soviet Union's highest award (equivalent to our Medal of Honor), the Hero of the Soviet Union. The youngest recipient was an 18 year old high schooler, Zoya Kosmodemyankaya.
There were over 2,000 women snipers in the Soviet Red Army. The best known female sniper was Ludmila Pavlichenko who had 309 confirmed kills, mostly at Stalingrad. Ludmila was in her fourth year as a history student in the university when she volunteered to serve. After the war she finished her education and became a college history professor. The youngest female sniper was Klavdiya Kalugina who was 17 when she volunteered to become a sniper. There were several Russian Korean women who served as snipers as well as in other capacities in combat.
There were also many women guerrilla fighters. The youngest known female guerrilla fighter was Zinaida Portnova who joined the partisans when she was 15 and was captured and killed at 17. The aforementioned beautiful 18 year old, Zoya Kosmodemyankava was a guerrilla fighter. She was captured by the Nazis, brutally tortured and raped, but refused to give up the names of other guerrillas and their location. The Nazis stripped her naked and took her out in freezing temperatures to be hung in a village square as an example to others. The brave and defiant 18 year old shouted at the Nazis as they slipped the noose around her neck, "you can't kill us all!" There was no shortage of incredibly heroic women warriors.
At this point it may be a bit confusing as to why I am talking about all these women warriors and what that has to do with The Manchurian Tales. I wanted to show the tremendous impact that women warriors have had on the outcome of wars, particularly in the case of the Soviet Union and World War Two. I do make mention of women's involvement during the Korean War in clandestine operations in The Manchurian Tales, and my intent is to give more information to the readers.
Women's participation in the Korean War did not result in any great victories or dramatic outcomes. In fact, it is but one of the many sad and poorly hatched and conducted operations that involved women, the so-called KLO or Korean Liaison Officer program, a euphemistic name given to this operation. On the communist side, they did employ female guerrilla members in their "Palchisan" units that infiltrated into South Korea, but on our side, the KLO female agents were about the extent of direct participation by women in that war.
Saturday, May 3, 2014
Soviet Invasion of Manchuria
In several earlier blogs, I discussed the Soviet Occupation of Manchuria, their looting and criminal behavior, the arrests and deportations. I mentioned all of those things in The Manchurian Tales. However, I did not discuss the Soviet Invasion of Manchuria, the military operation and the subsequent battles and casualties. Having received my schooling during the "Cold War" era, I learned very little about Soviet war history. Think about it. Do you recall ever reading anything positive about the Soviet Union in your text books or newspapers, or hearing on TV news?
Naturally, during the "Cold War" era there was the tendency to either ignore or make little of anything that might show the Soviet Union in a favorable light. The Soviets, of course, did exactly the same thing when it came to us. With the fall of the Soviet Union, we became much more accepting and generous about Soviet successes and other things that may be viewed as positive. For instance, it would have been unthinkable to make a movie such as the Enemy at the Gates, a rather positive presentation of the Soviet sniper, Zaitsev. There were some pro Soviet movies made during WWII, after all, they were our allies then. But nothing afterwards, not until the fall of the Soviet Union. Consequently, what was written in our school text books about Soviet contribution in the Pacific was simply waved off or ignored. If anything, much criticism was directed at the Soviet Union for not stepping in earlier, to help out in the Pacific. Of course, we did not discuss the fact that the Soviets fought the Nazis almost single handedly for a long time and we did not open the "second front" until the Normandy Invasion in June of 1944. Be that as it may, the Soviets did play a very important role in the Pacific, even if they did not enter the war until the closing days.
Japan's best army, the Kwantung Army of almost a million and a half men were kept in Manchuria and never sent to fight our troops in the Pacific. The Kwantung Army was kept in reserve because of Japanese fear of Russian invasion, which did finally take place. But in the meantime, it kept valuable manpower away from the Pacific battlegrounds. To be sure, some units were shipped off to battle, for the Kwantung Army in full strength should have been close to two million men, not one point four million, as it was when the Soviets invaded Manchuria. But nevertheless, one point four million men and all the equipment, tanks, artillery, etc., is no joking matter, and it was kept in Manchuria.
In February of 1945, during the famous Yalta Conference, FDR, Churchill, and Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would not step into war in the Pacific until the Nazis were defeated in Germany. This was mutually agreed upon. Germany surrendered in May of 1945, and in July of 1945, at the Potsdam Conference, the new US President Truman, Churchill, and Stalin met and Stalin informed Truman and Churchill that he would launch an invasion of Manchuria on August 9. Truman did not tell Stalin that the US was going to drop the atomic bomb on the 6th of August, although he hinted of a surprise! Churchill knew, but they did not tell Stalin.
On August 9, three days after the dropping of the bomb on Hiroshima, two million Soviet troops crossed into Manchuria in a classic pincer movement. One element crossed the Ussuri River from Primorsky Krai in the east, and another element crossed into Manchuria from Mongolia in the north. There were fierce battles ranging all over, and the fighting lasted until September 2 in some places, more than two weeks after Japan's unconditional surrender! However, Manchuria was taken very quickly, before Japan's official surrender. Some members of the Kwantung Army refused to accept the surrender and fought on in small pockets and were wiped out. The casualties? In a war that essentially lasted two weeks, the Soviets lost 9,726 KIA and 24, 425 wounded. On the Japanese side, the losses were horrendous. The Kwantung Army lost 83,737 KIA and 640,276 who heeded the Emperor's call for surrender and gave up, only to be sent off to the Gulags where most of them died. So, in short, Japan lost a million four hundred thousand men in Manchuria in less than a two week period!
There are historians in Japan, and in America, well respected historians who believe that Japan's surrender was partly encouraged by the Soviet Invasion of Manchuria. Of course the two atomic bombs were no doubt major reason for the decision to surrender, but no doubt the Soviet Invasion of Manchuria and the subsequent annihilation of Japan's best army, the Kwantung Army, had a role in it as well.
Naturally, during the "Cold War" era there was the tendency to either ignore or make little of anything that might show the Soviet Union in a favorable light. The Soviets, of course, did exactly the same thing when it came to us. With the fall of the Soviet Union, we became much more accepting and generous about Soviet successes and other things that may be viewed as positive. For instance, it would have been unthinkable to make a movie such as the Enemy at the Gates, a rather positive presentation of the Soviet sniper, Zaitsev. There were some pro Soviet movies made during WWII, after all, they were our allies then. But nothing afterwards, not until the fall of the Soviet Union. Consequently, what was written in our school text books about Soviet contribution in the Pacific was simply waved off or ignored. If anything, much criticism was directed at the Soviet Union for not stepping in earlier, to help out in the Pacific. Of course, we did not discuss the fact that the Soviets fought the Nazis almost single handedly for a long time and we did not open the "second front" until the Normandy Invasion in June of 1944. Be that as it may, the Soviets did play a very important role in the Pacific, even if they did not enter the war until the closing days.
Japan's best army, the Kwantung Army of almost a million and a half men were kept in Manchuria and never sent to fight our troops in the Pacific. The Kwantung Army was kept in reserve because of Japanese fear of Russian invasion, which did finally take place. But in the meantime, it kept valuable manpower away from the Pacific battlegrounds. To be sure, some units were shipped off to battle, for the Kwantung Army in full strength should have been close to two million men, not one point four million, as it was when the Soviets invaded Manchuria. But nevertheless, one point four million men and all the equipment, tanks, artillery, etc., is no joking matter, and it was kept in Manchuria.
In February of 1945, during the famous Yalta Conference, FDR, Churchill, and Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union would not step into war in the Pacific until the Nazis were defeated in Germany. This was mutually agreed upon. Germany surrendered in May of 1945, and in July of 1945, at the Potsdam Conference, the new US President Truman, Churchill, and Stalin met and Stalin informed Truman and Churchill that he would launch an invasion of Manchuria on August 9. Truman did not tell Stalin that the US was going to drop the atomic bomb on the 6th of August, although he hinted of a surprise! Churchill knew, but they did not tell Stalin.
On August 9, three days after the dropping of the bomb on Hiroshima, two million Soviet troops crossed into Manchuria in a classic pincer movement. One element crossed the Ussuri River from Primorsky Krai in the east, and another element crossed into Manchuria from Mongolia in the north. There were fierce battles ranging all over, and the fighting lasted until September 2 in some places, more than two weeks after Japan's unconditional surrender! However, Manchuria was taken very quickly, before Japan's official surrender. Some members of the Kwantung Army refused to accept the surrender and fought on in small pockets and were wiped out. The casualties? In a war that essentially lasted two weeks, the Soviets lost 9,726 KIA and 24, 425 wounded. On the Japanese side, the losses were horrendous. The Kwantung Army lost 83,737 KIA and 640,276 who heeded the Emperor's call for surrender and gave up, only to be sent off to the Gulags where most of them died. So, in short, Japan lost a million four hundred thousand men in Manchuria in less than a two week period!
There are historians in Japan, and in America, well respected historians who believe that Japan's surrender was partly encouraged by the Soviet Invasion of Manchuria. Of course the two atomic bombs were no doubt major reason for the decision to surrender, but no doubt the Soviet Invasion of Manchuria and the subsequent annihilation of Japan's best army, the Kwantung Army, had a role in it as well.
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